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Time use surveys, which originated at the end of the 19th century among working-class families in England and France, were initially conducted to examine family budgets and evaluate people’s behaviour based on their use of time. By the 20th century, time-use surveys had evolved to recognise work done outside the labour market and to measure the economic value of unpaid work within households.
As most unpaid work in families is borne by women, time-use surveys have become critical for measuring gender equality and the contribution of women’s unpaid work to national well-being and the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Globally, women carry out three-quarters of the world’s unpaid work. The gendered division of work within households hampers women’s access to education and employment.
The time spent by Indian women on unpaid domestic and care work was more than eight times that of men and higher than most other countries.
India is among a handful of countries, such as Australia, Japan, the United States, and China, to conduct national-level time-use surveys. The first survey in India was conducted on a pilot basis in 1998, covering six states and laying the groundwork for a larger survey in 2019. The 2019 survey starkly revealed the disparity in time use between men and women in India. The time spent by Indian women on unpaid domestic and care work was more than eight times that of men and higher than most other countries. The answer to the confounding decline in the female labour participation rate in India can be found in the time-use survey.
Time poverty is a gendered issue, affecting women more than men. Studies demonstrate that time poverty caused by the heavy burden of paid and unpaid work affects women’s well-being, as they are left with less time for paid work, education and leisure, and it increases their risk of falling into or remaining in poverty.
Data from 2024 and women’s time poverty
The initial findings from the latest Time-Use Survey (January–December 2024) have just been released by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation. The survey shows that the time spent by females (for persons of age 6 years and above) on unpaid domestic work is 289 minutes a day compared to 88 minutes for males. Of the total time in a day, females spent 16.4 percent of their time on unpaid domestic work compared to males, who only spent 1.7 percent of their time on such work. This is not all. Other than domestic work, females in India spent 137 minutes a day in caregiving activities, taking care of children and the elderly, compared to 75 minutes spent by males.
The burden of unpaid domestic and care work on females increases with age. Females between the ages 15–59 years spent 305 minutes a day on such work, recording a marginal decline from 315 minutes a day in 2019. For the same age group, 41 percent of females participated in caregiving for household members, compared to 21.4 percent by males.
Females between the ages 15–59 years spent 305 minutes a day on such work, recording a marginal decline from 315 minutes a day in 2019.
With the multiple demands on women’s time, the survey brings out how their participation in paid work is directly impacted. While 75 percent of males between 15–59 years participated in employment and related activities during the reference period of 24 hours, only 25 percent of females participated in paid work.
Economic value of unpaid work
Despite significant improvements in women’s access to bank accounts and overall digital financial inclusion in India over the last decade, which impact empowerment and decision-making within households, improvements in physical infrastructure like clean cooking fuel, piped water, electrification, road construction, and sanitation services, all of which are considered key determinants for women’s time poverty in developing countries, the total work burden on Indian women has not decreased. The survey from 2019 revealed that cooking, cleaning, and childcare occupy almost 85 percent of women’s time spent on unpaid work. Despite supportive policies, social norms on women’s unpaid work have been resistant to change.
The survey from 2019 revealed that cooking, cleaning, and childcare occupy almost 85 percent of women’s time spent on unpaid work.
Even though unpaid work is essential for the well-being of households and communities and the economy as a whole, it remains largely unrecognised and undervalued. It has, however, become increasingly common for researchers to use time-use data to calculate the economic costs of women’s unpaid work. According to a report from last year by the government, the estimated economic value of women’s unpaid domestic work ranges from 15 percent to 17 percent of India’s GDP. The report emphasises that the significant value created by women’s work within households is mostly disregarded as it is outside of the market.
The latest time-use survey underlines the need to address the unequal distribution of unpaid work. A collaborative approach between the public and private sector, increased investing in care infrastructure, supportive leave and benefit policies, skill training, and job creation in the care services sector will be necessary to address the gender disparity in time poverty and the gaps limiting women’s labour force participation.
Sunaina Kumar is a Senior Fellow at the Observer Research Foundation.
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