Introduction

Over the last 150 years, the global average surface temperature has increased by 0.76 degree Celsius, a direct impact of climate change.[1] Climate change is one of the most significant challenges for the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) member states.[1] With a population of about 1.9 billion[2] and large coastal settlements dependent on natural resources for their livelihood, the BIMSTEC bloc is particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change.[3] Phenomena such as global warming, which causes elevated air and water temperatures and alters patterns of rainfalls, floods, droughts, sea level rise and salinity intrusion—adversely impact human settlements, infrastructure, agricultural production, food security, water quality and human health.

Within the BIMSTEC, the South Asian region is even more vulnerable to climate change. In the last five decades, the region has experienced an average per-decade rise of 0.1–0.3 degree Celsius in temperature. It is expected to increase on average by 1.5 to two degree Celsius by 2065[4] and by 2.4–4.5 degree Celsius by the end of the century.[5] While the precipitation in South Asia has always been highly variable, the annual rainfall has steadily declined in some regions, triggering droughts; and increased in others, causing flash floods. There is evidence that anthropogenic climate change is responsible for the increase in the frequency, intensity and amount of heavy rainfall globally.[6] Another threat is the rise in sea levels: the Geophysical Fluid Dynamic Laboratory model predicts a rise of 0.05–0.25 m by 2050 and 0.18–0.80 m by the end of the 21^st century.[7]

Weather variations and climate change due to global warming have caused severe economic damage and loss of lives. In the last two centuries, 20 out of 23 major cyclone disasters in the world have occurred around the Bay of Bengal, particularly in Bangladesh and India. In 2007, Cyclone Sidr destroyed over 647,000 hectares of cropland, 40,000 hectares of forest resources, livestock worth US$18 million, and contributed to a loss of US$415 million worth of crop production. In India alone, there are 300,000 deaths every year due to diarrhoea caused by water contamination. A 2015 heat wave and a 2013 flood killed 2,300 and 5,500 people, respectively. In Nepal, forest fires destroyed 12,000 community forests in 2016, and landslides claim 200 lives each year. Sri Lanka faces huge crop losses due to groundwater salinity and coastal erosion. The GDP in South Asian economies is expected to decrease by 11 percent by 2100 under the Business-As-Usual (BAU) Emissions Scenario.[8]

This brief discusses the challenges faced by the BIMSTEC countries due to climate change and their initiatives to mitigate the effects. It offers recommendations to hurdle the challenges and achieve the global agenda as laid out in both the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the Paris Agreement on Climate Change.

Socioeconomic Situation of BIMSTEC States: An Overview

Over the years, the BIMSTEC member states have experienced structural transformation in their economies, with a decrease in the share of agriculture and an increase in that of industry and services sectors (see Table 1).

Table 1: Key Socioeconomic Indicators of the BIMSTEC Nations

	Bangladesh	Bhutan	India	Myanmar	Nepal	Sri Lanka	Thailand
Population (in million)	166.37	0.817	1,354.05	53.86	29.62	20.95	69.18
Population density (per sq. km)	1,278.1	21.4	455.4	82.4	206.7	334.1	135.4
GDP in constant USD (billion USD)	180	2.4	2629.5	79.2	21.3	82.4	422.9
GDP per capita (in constant USD)	1,093.05	2,955.81	1,963.55	1,484.2	849	3,842.3	6,125.66
GNI per capita (current USD)	4,040	8,850	7,060	5830	2,710	12,470	17,090
GDP growth (%)	7.28	4.63	6.68	6.76	7.91	3.31	3.91
Share (%) of agriculture in GDP	14.8	17.3	17.4	25.3	31.6	8.2	8.3
Share (%) of industry in GDP	28.8	43.5	28.8	34.9	14.2	29.6	35.8
Share (%) of services in GDP	56.5	39.2	58.8	39.8	54.2	62.2	55.8
Happiness Index	4.61	5.01	4.32	4.55	4.88	4.44	6.42
Human Development Index (HDI)	0.608	0.612	0.64	0.578	0.574	0.77	0.755

Note: Population and population density data: valid for 2018; all other data: valid for 2017.

Source: World Bank, United Nations and The Global Economy.[9]

Bangladesh is currently in the process of graduating to a developing country by improving in the three areas used to identify the Least Developed Countries (LDCs);[10] Thailand is set to graduate to a developed country by avoiding the so-called “middle-income trap”;[11] Bhutan will graduate in December 2023, after a five-year preparatory period;[12] Nepal was found eligible for graduation from the LDC category for the second consecutive time at the 2018 triennial review by the Committee for Development Policy;[13] and Myanmar was found eligible for graduation for the first time in 2018.[14] India is transitioning from being a lower middle-income country to an upper middle-income country.[15]

Such impressive growth, however, does not readily guarantee sustainable development. First, if the growth is not accompanied by the internalisation of GHG emissions and the adaptive capacity to deal with the impact of climate change, the economic development will not be sustainable. Adaptive capacity has been defined by the IPCC as “the strengths, attributes, and resources available to an individual, community, society, or organization that can be used to prepare for and undertake actions to reduce adverse impacts, moderate harm, or exploit beneficial opportunities.”[16] Second, the ever-increasing global GHG emission is a threat to all economies in the world, including those in the BIMSTEC. It is predicted that the region will experience a sea-level rise of 30–45 cm by 2050,[17] leading to a loss of more than one-tenth of its land surface and the internal migration of 10–30 million people.[18]

The impacts of increased GHG emissions include extreme weather events, declining crop yields, loss of forests, the damage of coastal resources and associated economic losses. Since the BIMSTEC region is dependent on agriculture, fisheries and natural resources, it is highly vulnerable to droughts, floods and tropical cyclones. Further, climate change causes extreme weather events and forest fires, which in turn jeopardise the valuable export industries of the region.

Climate-Related Risks

Climate-related risks encompass health, livelihoods, food security, water supply, human security, and economic growth. These risks are projected to increase with global warming of 1.5 degree Celsius and even further with two degree Celsius.[19] Climate-related risks vary across regions, depending on the magnitude and rate of global warming, geographical location and levels of development, as well as a country’s adaptation and mitigation measures and their implementation.[20]

The BIMSTEC region experiences huge economic losses due to disasters resulting from changes in climatic conditions, such as strong winds, storm surges, tsunamis and floods. Figure 4 shows the so-called “unfortunate events” due to climate-change-related calamities, as well as deaths and financial losses. The highest number of “unfortunate events” have occurred in India, the highest deaths in Myanmar and the largest economic losses in India and Thailand. The lowest economic losses were in Nepal and Bhutan. These figures indicate that a lower level of industrialisation, i.e. low emissions and more greenery, ensures a lower risk of being affected by natural calamities. Between the two groups of extremes—India and Thailand on the high end and Bhutan and Nepal on the low end—lie Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Myanmar, with moderate occurrences of extreme events, deaths and economic losses.

Figure 1: The Economic Cost of Natural Disasters (10-Year Moving Average 2005–14)

Source: EM-DAT, 2014[21]

The BIMSTEC economies rely on industrialisation for steady growth and development. However, while their carbon dioxide (CO₂) and greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions have been on a steady rise in recent years (see Figure 4), the levels are still insignificant compared to those of the developed countries (see figures 2 and 3). India is an outlier in the bloc, with high carbon and GHG emissions.

Figure 2: Carbon Emissions by Countries (in Megatons), 2017

Source: EDGAR/IEA Database[22]

Figure 3: Total GHG Emissions by the BMSTEC Members (in Megatons), 2017

Source: EDGAR/IEA database[23]

Figure 4: Total CO₂ Emissions by the BIMSTEC Members (in Megatons), 2013–17

Source: EDGAR/IEA database[24]

The BIMSTEC region’s contribution to GHG emissions is on the rise. For example, GHG emissions increased by 23.6 percent, 44.9 percent, 44.8 percent, 11.5 percent, 18 percent, 9.2 percent and 18.2 percent during 2005–12 for Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Thailand, respectively.[25]

Bangladesh

Bangladesh is one of the fastest-growing countries in the BIMSTEC region, with an 8.1 percent growth in its Gross Domestic Product (GDP)[26] in 2018-19. The country is densely populated, with more than 166 million people living in an area of 147,570 sq. km. While Bangladesh’s carbon emission was insignificant in 2017—only 0.23 percent of the global emissions—it has been steadily increasing, from 68.59 megatons in 2013 to 84.55 megatons in 2017, a 23-percent increase within five years.[27]

The power sector was the top emitter of CO₂ in 2017. With increasing GHG emissions, over 80 percent of Bangladesh’s population is potentially exposed to floods, earthquakes and droughts, and about 70 percent to cyclones.[28] The south and south-eastern parts of the country are frequently affected by tropical cyclones, and the entire coastal belt faces salinity problems. The north and north-western parts, meanwhile, suffer from extreme high temperatures. Salinity intrusion adversely affects fisheries, and irregular weather conditions damage agricultural production, both affecting food and water security.

Bhutan

With the lowest population size (0.81 million), lowest GDP size (2.4 million) and highest happiness index (5.01) in the region (see Table 1), Bhutan emitted only 1.45 megatons of CO₂ in 2017.[29] The highest emissions were by the agriculture sector, which contributed 60 percent of all emissions, followed by the power sector at 11 percent. The transport and construction sectors contributed the least, at nine percent and one percent, respectively.

In Bhutan, the main source of water is glacial lakes and melting snow. An increase in carbon emission leads to increased temperature, making the glaciers melt faster. This poses a danger to downstream agriculture and leads to food insecurity, public infrastructure damage, and poverty.

India

India is the largest country in the region in terms of both population and GDP. The country grew by 6.86 percent in 2017 (see Table 1). Its total CO₂ emission in 2017 was 2454.77 megatons, the highest in the BIMSTEC region, of which 47 percent came from the power and energy sector, followed by agriculture, transport and construction sectors.[30] India is the world’s fourth-largest emitter of CO₂.[31] The high GHG emissions contribute to climate change, exacerbating issues such as extreme heat, reduced rainfall, a decline in groundwater levels, long droughts, the melting of the Himalayan glaciers, coastal flooding and internal migration. These, in turn, affect crop yields, agricultural production, and the availability of water, energy security and health.

Myanmar

Myanmar is the fourth-largest county in the region in terms of population size and fifth-largest in terms of GDP (see Table 1). Its total carbon emission in 2017 was 28.46 megatons,[32] which was only 0.98 percent of total emissions from BIMSTEC countries. Myanmar’s transport sector was the highest contributor with 39 percent of total emissions, followed by power and energy which contributed 18 percent of all emissions and construction industries which contributed 12 percent of all emissions. Climate change due to increase emissions causes irregular rainfall and extreme weather conditions in Myanmar. This has resulted in flooding as well as droughts and forest fires, causing a marked decline in the country’s major cash crops and livestock population. Cyclones lead to loss of shrimping rafts and fishing vessels, while droughts cause disease outbreaks. There is also the problem of salinity intrusion, which contaminates water.

Nepal

Nepal has the lowest per-capita GDP and second-lowest total GDP in the region, at US$849 and US$21.3 billion in 2017, respectively (see Table 1). The country’s GHG emissions per capita are amongst the lowest in the world. In 2017, its total carbon emission was 8.22 megatons,[33] with the transport sector contributing the most, at 35 percent, and the power sector the least, at one percent. The major impact of climate change in the country is floods: the glacial lake outburst flood and the ‘bishyari’ that occurs in the mid-hills after cloudbursts. Both these types of floods are lethal because they are random and cannot be predicted precisely.[34] Nepal also experiences droughts, which are slow and widespread and affect farming, leading to food deficits. Further, the increased frequency of droughts, coupled with the extended forest cover, triggers forest fires, affecting livestock rearing and glacial melting. Erratic rainfalls also affect the drinking water supply system and hill agriculture.

Sri Lanka

Despite its relatively lower GDP size (fourth in the region), Sri Lanka’s low population (sixth in the region) makes it the second-richest country in the BIMSTEC, with a per-capita income of US$3,842.3 in 2017 (see Table 1). The country’s total GHG emission constitutes less than 0.1 percent of global emissions.[35] In 2017, Sri Lanka emitted 23.98 megatons of CO₂,[36] with the transport sector being the largest emitter, accounting for 40 percent of its total emission, and the power and energy sector contributing 32 percent. Sri Lanka’s economy depends on climate-sensitive sectors such as agriculture and forestry. As such, the country faces serious threats due to deforestation, e.g. reduced oil fertility, productivity and natural-water supply.

Thailand

Within the BIMSTEC region, Thailand has the highest per-capita income, the highest HDI, second-highest total GDP size and the third-highest population size (see Table 1). Its total carbon emission was approximately 279.30 megatons in 2017, the second highest in the region. The country’s GHG emissions were only 0.84 percent of the global emissions in 2012, and 0.64 percent in 2015.[37] In 2017, about 33 percent of its total emissions originated from the power and energy sector and 24 percent from the transport sector (see Table 2). Thailand is also affected by extreme weather events such as tropical storms, floods and droughts, which have resulted in deforestation, a reduction in agricultural production and a decline in fisheries.

Table 2: Sources of CO₂ Emission by Country and Sector (in Megatons), 2017

Country	Sector-wise Carbon Emission, 2017
	Power and Energy Sector	Construction Sector	Transport Sector	Agriculture and Other Sectors	Other Industries	Total
Bangladesh	35.50	11.47	9.82	9.79	17.96	84.55
Bhutan	0.15	0.02	0.14	0.87	0.28	1.45
India	1,160.23	188.61	276.84	207.37	621.72	2455
Myanmar	5.28	3.50	11.14	1.96	6.57	28.46
Nepal	N/A	1.41	2.90	1.05	2.86	8.22
Sri Lanka	7.60	1.17	9.75	2.11	3.36	23.98
Thailand	93.30	18.78	66.46	24.84	75.91	279.30

Source: EDGAR/ IEA Database[38]

Initiatives by the BIMSTEC Countries

At the 2015 Conference of Parties (COP 21) in Paris, the UNFCCC adopted the Paris Agreement on climate change. Prior to the conference, developed and developing countries made their national post-2020 climate-action commitments, called the Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs). Under the UNFCCC’s Paris Agreement, the BIMSTEC members made commitments in their INDCs (see Table 3).

Table 3: BIMSTEC Commitments and Progress Made

Economy	Commitment	Progress on Commitment
Bangladesh	By 2030, Bangladesh plans to cut greenhouse gas emissions by five percent, compared to the BAU levels in the power, transport and energy sectors, rising to 15 percent on international support.	It has already developed considerable infrastructure and capability to address these climate-change induced vulnerabilities through disaster risk management and climate change adaptation. To accelerate the present domestic initiatives to adapt to climate change and secure the lives and livelihoods of people, the government has allocated nearly US$400 million to the Bangladesh Climate Change Trust Fund (BCCTF). As of June 2015, the BCCTF has funded over 236 projects, of which 41 have already been implemented. Bangladesh has also prepared a roadmap towards formulating a comprehensive National Adaptation Plan (NAP), with a view to reducing vulnerability to the impacts of climate change by building adaptive capacity and resilience.
Bhutan	Bhutan plans to remain carbon neutral, as set out in 2009. It reiterates its commitment to keep 60 percent of its territory forested.	The forest monitoring and inventory system has been developed in conjunction with a national forest-monitoring system for REDD+, which monitors and assesses forest cover. Mitigation and adaptation actions within this INDC have been integrated into the preparation of the 12th Five-Year Development Plan (2018–23).
India	By 2030, India aims to cut down GHG emissions for each unit of GDP by 33–35 percent (from the 2005 levels). It also aims to source 40 percent of electricity from non-fossil fuel sources by the same year. The estimated cost is US$2.5 trillion.	The emission intensity of India’s GDP has decreased by 12 percent between 2005 and 2010. The energy intensity of the economy has decreased from 18.16 GOE (grams of oil equivalent) per INR of GDP in 2005, to 15.02 GOE per INR of GDP in 2012. Between 2002 and 2015, the share of renewable grid capacity has increased over six times, from two percent (3.9 GW) to around 13 percent (36 GW). Electricity generation capacity of about 10,000 MW has been added between 2005 and 2012.
Myanmar	By 2030, Myanmar’s permanent forest-estate target is to ensure that 40 percent of the national land area is forest land. It also plans to achieve a 20-percent electricity saving potential.	Ministries are streamlining adaptation to climate change in their planning. The agriculture sector is implementing climate-smart agricultural approaches through implementation actions, such as legume crops diversification, measures in the agro-forestry sector, and the systematic control of soil quality and irrigation water.
Nepal	By 2050, Nepal aims to reduce its dependency on fossil fuels by 50 percent and achieve 80 percent electrification through renewable energy sources, with an appropriate energy mix. It plans to maintain 40 percent of the total area of the country under forest cover.	Nepal’s adaptation needs for the future is envisioned through its NAPs. It has made significant progress in implementing adaptation actions as prioritised in its National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) to help adapt and build resilience to climate-change impacts. The Local Adaptation Plans of Action (LAPA) Framework ensures the process of integrating climate change adaptation and resilience from local-to-national level planning processes that are bottom-up, inclusive, responsive and flexible.
Sri Lanka	By 2030, Sri Lanka aims to reduce the GHG emissions against the BAU scenario, by 20 percent in the energy sector, four percent unconditionally and 16 percent conditionally; and by 10 percent in other sectors (transport, industry, forests and waste), three percent unconditionally and seven percent conditionally.	The country has already taken initiatives for integrated planning through NAPs and energy-planning processes, which should be extended to other sectors, vertically and horizontally.
Thailand	By 2030, Thailand intends to reduce its GHG emissions by 20 percent from the projected BAU level. The level of contribution could increase up to 25 percent, subject to adequate and enhanced access to technology development. By 2036, it aims to achieve a 20-percent share of power generation from renewable sources, a 30-percent share of renewable energy in the total final energy consumption, a reduction in the country’s energy intensity by 30 percent (from the 2010 level).	Thailand has already achieved a four-percent reduction in GHG emissions from the projected 2020 BAU and is well on track to achieving the seven-percent target pledged as voluntary domestic efforts by 2020. A vehicle tax scheme based on CO2 emissions was approved and has been active since 2016.

Source: Based on INDC submissions to UNFCCC[39]

Climate Change and the SDGs

Climate change has traditionally been handled within the UNFCCC. However, since addressing climate change is crucial to the sustainable development of all countries, global leaders have devised and included a specific goal on climate change in the SDGs. SDG-13 on climate action calls for taking urgent steps to combat climate change and its impacts.[40] Additionally, there are a number of other SDGs that are relevant to climate change (see Table 4).

Climate change has the potential to hamper progress towards SDGs, such as poverty eradication, zero hunger, health, water, clean energy, infrastructure, economic growth, sustainable cities and the overall well-being of human society. Climate change is also likely to increase the cost of implementing SDGs. Since the BIMSTEC members are committed to implementing the SDGs by 2030, they must prioritise climate-change challenges.

Table 4: SDGs Relevant to Climate Change

SDG	SDG Targets
SDG-1: No Poverty	1.5 Build the resilience of the poor and those in vulnerable situations and reduce their exposure and vulnerability to climate-related extreme events and other economic, social and environmental shocks and disasters
SDG-2: Zero Hunger	2.4 Ensure sustainable food production systems and implement resilient agricultural practices that increase productivity and production, that help maintain ecosystems, that strengthen capacity for adaptation to climate change, extreme weather, drought, flooding and other disasters and that progressively improve land and soil quality
SDG-3: Good Health and Well-Being	3.9 Substantially reduce the number of deaths and illnesses from hazardous chemicals and air, water and soil pollution and contamination
SDG-6: Clean Water and Sanitation	6.1 Achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all 6.2 Achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end open defecation, paying special attention to the needs of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations 6.3 Improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimising the release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally 6.5 Implement integrated water resources management at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate 6.6 Protect and restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes
SDG-7: Affordable and Clean Energy	7.1 Ensure universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services7.2 Increase substantially the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix7.3 By 2030, double the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency7.a By 2030, enhance international cooperation to facilitate access to clean energy research and technology, including renewable energy, energy efficiency and advanced and cleaner fossil-fuel technology, and promote investment in energy infrastructure and clean energy technology
SDG-8: Decent Work and Economic Growth	8.4 Improve progressively, through 2030, global resource efficiency in consumption and production and endeavour to decouple economic growth from environmental degradation, in accordance with the 10-Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production, with developed countries taking the lead
SDG-9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure	9.4 Upgrade infrastructure and retrofit industries to make them sustainable, with increased resource-use efficiency and greater adoption of clean and environmentally sound technologies and industrial processes, with all countries taking action in accordance with their respective capabilities
SDG-11: Sustainable Cities and Communities	11.5 By 2030, significantly reduce the number of deaths and the number of people affected and substantially decrease the direct economic losses relative to the global GDP caused by disasters, including water-related disasters, with a focus on protecting the poor and people in vulnerable situations 11.6 Reduce the adverse per-capita environmental impact of cities, including by paying special attention to air quality and municipal and other waste management 11.b By 2020, substantially increase the number of cities and human settlements, adopting and implementing integrated policies and plans towards inclusion, resource efficiency, mitigation and adaptation to climate change, resilience to disasters, and develop and implement, in line with the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–30, holistic disaster risk management at all levels
SDG-12: Responsible Consumption and Production	12.2 Achieve sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources 12.3 Halve per capita global food waste at the retail and consumer levels and reduce food losses along production and supply chains, including post-harvest losses 12.4 Achieve the environmentally sound management of chemicals and all wastes throughout their life cycle, in accordance with agreed international frameworks, and significantly reduce their release to air, water and soil to minimise their adverse impacts on human health and the environment 12.5 Substantially reduce waste generation through prevention, reduction, recycling and reuse 12.8 By 2030, ensure that people everywhere have the relevant information and awareness for sustainable development and lifestyles in harmony with nature
SDG-13: Climate Action	13.1 Strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural disasters in all countries 13.2 Integrate climate-change measures into national policies, strategies and planning 13.3 Improve education, awareness-raising and human and institutional capacity on climate-change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early warning 13.a Implement the commitment undertaken by developed-country parties to the UNFCCC, to a goal of mobilising jointly US$100 billion annually by 2020 from all sources to address the needs of developing countries in the context of meaningful mitigation actions and transparency on implementation and fully operationalise the Green Climate Fund through its capitalisation as soon as possible 13.b Promote mechanisms for raising capacity for effective climate-change-related planning and management in LDCs and small island developing states, including focusing on women, youth and local and marginalised communities
SDG-14: Life below Water	14.1 By 2025, prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds, in particular from land-based activities, including marine debris and nutrient pollution
SDG-15: Life on Land	15.1 By 2020, ensure the conservation, restoration and sustainable use of terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems and their services, in particular forests, wetlands, mountains and drylands, in line with obligations under international agreements 15.2 Promote the implementation of sustainable management of all types of forests, halt deforestation, restore degraded forests and substantially increase afforestation and reforestation globally 15.3 Combat desertification, restore degraded land and soil, including land affected by desertification, drought and floods, and strive to achieve a land-degradation-neutral world 15.4 By 2030, ensure the conservation of mountain ecosystems, including their biodiversity, to enhance their capacity to provide benefits that are essential for sustainable development 15.5 Take urgent and significant action to reduce the degradation of natural habitats, halt the loss of biodiversity and, by 2020, protect and prevent the extinction of threatened species 15.9 By 2020, integrate ecosystem and biodiversity values into national and local planning, development processes, poverty reduction strategies and accounts 15.a Mobilise and significantly increase financial resources from all sources to conserve and sustainably use biodiversity and ecosystems

Source: United Nations, 2015.

Recommendations

Given the nature of climate-induced problems faced by countries in the region, policymakers should undertake both adaptation and mitigation measures. Most countries in the region are severely affected by climate change despite being insignificant emitters of GHG, and adaptation is the most feasible approach for them in dealing with climate change. However, India, whose emission level is higher than the rest of the countries in the region, must focus on mitigation.

Climate change is cross-border in nature and solutions also must be. To combat the impact of climate change and achieve the SGDs, all countries must formulate far-reaching and action-oriented policies. The following paragraphs outline suggested measures for the BIMSTEC states. First, adaptation measures in the region must be scaled up to enhance adaptive capacity, strengthen resilience and reduce vulnerability to climate change, as laid out in the Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA) in the Paris Agreement. NAPs should be implemented through participatory measures, and adaptation-related institutional arrangements should be strengthened—at the global, regional and national levels—to achieve the GGA.

Second, the higher polluting countries in the region must work towards reducing their GHG emissions, to help achieve a key objective of the Paris Agreement, i.e. keeping the average increase in global temperature well below 1.5 to two degree Celsius. Green technology and clean energy are crucial in meeting mitigation goals. Thus, substantial investments must be made in renewable energy to make agriculture and manufacturing greener.

Third, the implementation of mitigation and adaptation measures require significant financial support from developed countries. Such support should be based on the scientific analysis of requirements, with funds being provided based on the scale and extent of damage due to global warming under various scenarios.

Fourth, the BIMSTEC members must consider trans-boundary action and collaboration on mitigation and adaptation by setting up a separate fund amongst themselves to address the impacts of climate change on the lives and livelihoods of people. This fund should be spent only for emission reduction, scaling up economic loss reduction, and in the aftermath of climate-related disasters. A cross-governmental approach to adaptation and mitigation planning can ensure that such a fund yields climate-resilient development. An expert group of the relevant ministries, agencies and departments can be brought together to create an appropriate plan of action and ensure proper monitoring. The group can further involve public and private stakeholders to share their respective experiences and make climate financing more useful.

Finally, countries within the Bay of Bengal region that are most vulnerable to climate change must incorporate the broader 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development in their development plans, to achieve climate-related objectives in a more systematic way. Such an exercise can help demonstrate how various SDGs are interconnected and how national goals are aligned with the SDGs. This process can provide clarity on the responsibilities of various stakeholders, such as policymakers, the private sector, non-government organisations, rights-based organisation development partners, and the media. Further, it can ensure better allocation of resources for specific climate-related goals and targets.

Endnotes

[1] Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand

[1] Asian Development Bank, Addressing Climate Change and Migration in Asia and the Pacific (Philippines: Asian Development Bank, 2012), https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/29662/addressing-climate-change-migration.pdf

[2] This population estimate is based on the following source:

“Countries and Economies,”  the World Bank Group,  accessed December 31, 2018, https://data.worldbank.org/country

[3]  Climate Change in the Bay of Bengal Region: Exploring Sectoral Cooperation for Sustainable Development (Bangladesh: COAST Trust, 2016), http://bbforum.net/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/BIMSTEC-Book-on-Climate-Change-Final.pdf

[4] Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Global Warming of 1.5 degree (Switzerland: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2018), accessed March 2019, https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2018/07/SR15_SPM_version_stand_alone_LR.pdf

[5] United States Agency for International Development, USAID Climate Change Adaptation Plan, United States Agency for International Development (USAID), June 2012, https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1865/

Agency%20Climate%20Change%20Adaptation%20Plan%202012.pdf

[6] Hoegh-Guldberg, et al., 2018. See https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/05/SR15_Chapter3_Low_Res.pdf

[7] Asian Development Bank, Climate Action South Asia: Steering Economies toward Low-Carbon and Climate-Resilient Development, CASA Information Update 3, Asian Development Bank, May 2015, https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/39302/casa-update-3-economics-climate-change_0.pdf

[8] Asian Development Bank, A Region at Risk: The Human Dimensions of Climate Change in Asia and the Pacific (Philippines: Asian Development Bank, 2017), accessed March 2019, https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/325251/region-risk-climate-change.pdf

[9] See the World Bank Group, op.cit.; “Economic Indicators,” The Global Economy, accessed December 31, 2017, www.theglobaleconomy.com/economies/; and “GNI per capita, PPP (current international $),” UNdata, accessed December 31, 2018, http://data.un.org/Data.aspx?d=WDI&f=Indicator_Code%3ANY.GNP.PCAP.PP.CD

[10] The three criteria are Gross National Income, Economic Vulnerability Index and Human Asset Index.

[11] United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, op.cit.

[12] UN Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, “Criteria for LDCs,” UN Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries (UN-OHRLLS), accessed March 2019,  http://unohrlls.org/about-ldcs/criteria-for-ldcs/

[13] Although Nepal was found to be eligible for graduation from the Least Developed Country status in 2018, the government of Nepal officially requested the United Nations not to consider it for graduation, and the Committee for Development Policy has deferred its decision regarding Nepal’s graduation till 2021. See  https://thediplomat.com/2018/06/is-nepal-ready-to-become-a-developing-country/ and https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/least-developed-country-category-nepal.html

[14] UN Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, op.cit.

[15] United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, op.cit.

[16] Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, “Glossary of terms,” in Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation (Cambridge, UK, and New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 555-564.

[17] See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2018), op.cit.

[18] See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2018), op.cit.

[19] See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2018), op.cit.

[20] See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2018), op.cit.

[21] The Emergency Events Database (EM-DAT), accessed in 2014, https://www.emdat.be/

[22] “Overview,” Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research, accessed March 3, 2019, http://edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu/overview.php?v=CO2andGHG1970-2016

[23] Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research, op.cit.

[24] Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research, op.cit.

[25] Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research, op.cit.

[26]  Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of Bangladesh (Final) 2017-18, Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS)

[27] Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research, op.cit.

[28] The World Bank Group, op.cit.

[29] Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research, op.cit.

[30] Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research, op.cit.

[31] UNdata accessed December 31, 2018, op.cit.

[32] Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research, op.cit.

[33] Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research, op.cit.

[34] International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Glacial Lakes and Glacial Lake Outburst Floods in Nepal (Kathmandu: International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), 2011), accessed March 2019, http://www.icimod.org/dvds/201104_GLOF/reports/final_report.pdf

[35] Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research, op.cit.

[36] Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research, op.cit.

[37] This estimate is based on the following source:

“CAIT Climate Data Explorer,” World Resources Institute, accessed March 5, 2019, https://www.wri.org/our-work/project/cait-climate-data-explorer

[38] Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research, op.cit.

[39] “INDCs as communicated by parties*,” United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, accessed March 2, 2019, https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/submissions/INDC/Submission%20Pages/submissions.aspx

[40] United Nations, Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. (New York: United Nations, 2015), https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/21252030%20Agenda%20for%20Sustainable

%20Development%20web.pdf.

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International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development. 2011. Glacial Lakes and Glacial Lake Outburst F loods in Nepal. Kathmandu: International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development. Accessed March 2019. http://www.icimod.org/dvds/201104_GLOF/reports/final_report.pdf.

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