Quantum technology could reshape humanity's future, requiring international norms to evolve accordingly. While efforts to ease collaboration exist, they remain insufficient.
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The quest to develop quantum technology (QT) has been picking up steam across the world. Given its cost-intensive and specialised nature, international collaboration has been and will continue to be a key factor in QT’s evolution. However, cooperation in the field has been limited by a variety of causes—export controls, intellectual property (IP) protection and supply chain constraints are the chief factors.
Export control restrictions present a significant challenge to global collaboration and the seamless exchange of knowledge in QT, particularly those pertaining to the transfer of technology and hardware components. Nations around the world including the United States (US), China, the United Kingdom (UK), and multiple European Union (EU) member-states like France, Spain and the Netherlands have enacted export control regulations on QT. The primary reason for this stems from the potential military application of quantum communication and quantum sensors, which subjects exports to heightened government scrutiny and regulation. Quantum computing (QC) also raises security concerns because a large-scale quantum computer is capable of breaking current encryption protocols. China’s growing prowess in QT is also an added concern, particularly for the US, which has already been a victim of multiple Chinese cyber espionage operations. The prospect of China possessing a quantum computer is, therefore, a serious security concern for the US.
Nations around the world including the United States (US), China, the United Kingdom (UK), and multiple European Union (EU) member-states like France, Spain and the Netherlands have enacted export control regulations on QT.
In September 2024, the US Bureau of Industry and Security (BIS) issued an interim final rule, expanding export control on emerging technologies such as QC, advanced semiconductor manufacturing, Gate All-Around Field-Effect Transistors (GAAFET) and additive manufacturing. With QC, the rule imposes export controls on quantum computers possessing 34 or more physical qubits at a specified error rate, which “represents a high level of technological sophistication warranting national security, regional stability, and anti-terrorism controls.” Additionally, while deemed exports and reexports are mostly exempt from these controls, some restrictions do still apply. The UK, France, Spain, the Netherlands and Canada have also enacted almost identical export control regulations.
Due to the military applications of quantum sensing, such as a quantum sensing-based Global Positioning System (GPS), the US International Traffic in Arms Regulations (ITAR) also presents a similar barrier for cross-border investments and collaboration, particularly with regard to technology transfer.
While certain restrictions on the export of QT are certainly warranted from a security point-of-view, the export regulations enacted by most countries on QT thus far seem to be quite arbitrary. For instance, though large-scale quantum computers are certainly capable of breaking current encryption protocols, they require millions if not billions of physical qubits, which will likely take more than a decade to achieve. Thus, it is quite unclear why restrictions are currently being imposed on them.
IP protection has also been a major hurdle in QT collaboration. This is displayed prominently in the US, where most developments in QT have been led by the private sector, which is particularly wary of IP protection. The situation has been exacerbated by certain Chinese initiatives like its “Thousand Talents Plan,” wherein scientists from around the world were offered hefty salary hikes to entice them to bring their research to China. This led to scientists illicitly providing China with technology and research findings, leading to the US accusing the country of IP theft.
The multifaceted and diverse nature of QT poses a challenge. Different technologies like QC, quantum communication, post-quantum cryptography (PQC) and quantum sensing require distinct IP provisions, thereby making harmonisation between them a problem. Coordinating IP rights across different nations is also a complex task due to variation in national laws and practices.
Quantum communication requires high-quality periodically poled nonlinear crystals such as KTP and LiNbO3, which are only produced in technologically advanced nations like China.
Developing and manufacturing QT hardware often requires rare and exotic raw materials which are limited in supply. These include critical minerals like semiconductors and rare earth metals—silicon, germanium, cobalt, lithium and indium. This presents severe supply chain constraints since these minerals are found only in select locations around the world. Furthermore, China processes around 80 percent of the world’s rare earth metals. Each kind of QT also requires its own niche materials. For instance, quantum communication requires high-quality periodically poled nonlinear crystals such as KTP and LiNbO3, which are only produced in technologically advanced nations like China. It also requires components like superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors which are produced only in a handful of countries like Germany, Japan, the US and Russia. Superconducting qubit-based quantum computers similarly require certain specialised components which are only produced and assembled at specific locations. Quantum sensors employ the use of integrated photonics which utilise materials like nonlinear crystals and novel material wafers, which are, likewise, only produced by limited countries.
Though the preceding issues do present a major obstacle to progress in QT, multiple initiatives have been undertaken to meet the challenge. The Quad has been successful in establishing a precedent in international collaboration on QT through initiatives such as the establishment of the Quad Critical and Emerging Technology Working Group (2021), the Quad Investors Network (QUIN) (2023) and the Quantum Center of Excellence in Quantum Information Sciences (2023).
Organisations such as the Quantum Economic Development Consortium (QED-C) in the US and the Quantum Ecosystems Technology Council of India (QETCI) are working actively to enhance international collaboration in QT. The US CHIPS and Science Act of 2022 and the European Chips Act of 2023 have been implemented to strengthen semiconductor supply chains, which are also a critical element in the development of QT. The US-India Initiative on Critical and Emerging Technology (iCET) serves as a shining example of technology collaboration on multiple fronts including the setting up of semiconductor fabrication plants and extensive cooperation in QT.
QT lies at the intersection of vastly different disciplines like quantum theory, condensed matter physics and computer science engineering. This makes it particularly difficult to encourage and train talent in the field. Moreover, QT necessitates heavy investment due to the novel and niche nature of the technology it requires. Simultaneously, QT also presents a plethora of opportunities for the future of humanity, from enhancements in medicine, healthcare and agriculture, right up to unravelling the very fabric of the universe through simulations in quantum physics and chemistry. Therefore, the quest to develop QT is unanimously significant, regardless of national borders.
However, due to the aforementioned impediments, it will be impractical for any country to pursue QT in isolation, making international collaboration an essential element to its development and propagation. This requires some changes in existing protocols and regulations.
The quest to develop QT is unanimously significant, regardless of national borders.
Harmonisation between export control regulations and IP laws across different nations will be key in this regard. Encouraging initiatives like the United States–India Initiative on Critical and Emerging Technology (iCET) and the CHIPS (Creating Helpful Incentives to Produce Semiconductors) Act will also be essential in strengthening supply chains. Organisations like the Quantum Economic Development Consortium (QED-C) and the Quantum Ecosystems Technology Council of India (QETCI) will continue to be important in coordinating efforts across multiple nations. The establishment of similar entities would be extremely useful in diminishing some of the barriers. Encouraging joint research and development (R&D) and publications across multiple nations through initiatives like the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QUAD), a grouping of Australia, India, Japan and the US initiated in 2007, would also be fruitful towards furthering collaboration.
With the rapid progress in QT, this serves as a critical moment in time for its development. As technology evolves, so must the international norms and agreements regulating it. Though there have been attempts to reduce impediments in collaboration, they are by no means sufficient. Further effort in this direction will ensure that QT continues to grow at a desirable pace, thereby cementing its place as a valuable tool for humanity’s progress and well-being.
Prateek Tripathi is a Junior Fellow with the Centre for Security, Strategy and Technology at the Observer Research Foundation Centre
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Prateek Tripathi is a Junior Fellow at the Centre for Security, Strategy and Technology. His work focuses on emerging technologies and deep tech including quantum technology ...
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