Introduction

Cities account for 63 percent of India’s gross domestic product (GDP) and are a pillar of sustained economic growth. With the urban population expected to increase from 377 million to 600 million by 2031,^[1] optimal, cost-efficient, and effective public transport systems are imperative for sustainable urban development.

Rising purchasing power and the widespread availability of cost-effective personal transport options have contributed to the proliferation of private vehicles in urban areas,^[a] increasing road traffic. While national highway expansion grew at a compounded annual growth rate (CAGR) of 5.54 percent from 2009 to 2019, the number of registered motor vehicles surged from 114.95 million to 295.8 million at a CAGR of 9.91 percent.^[b],[2] Studies estimate that India’s 60 million cars in 2020 could rise to 262 million by 2050.^[3] At the same time, the decadal trend in the number of public transport vehicles, particularly buses, shows a downward trajectory (see Table 1), comprising just 0.67 percent of the country’s total vehicle population in 2020.

Table 1: Decadal Growth of Vehicles in India

Source: Calculated by the authors using data from the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH) Handbook 2020-21.^[4]

During 2020-21, Delhi recorded the highest number of registered motor vehicles (11.893 million) among 55 cities with populations over one million, followed by Bengaluru (9.638 million), Faridabad (8.6 million), Chennai (6.352 million), Ahmedabad (4.571 million), Greater Mumbai (3.876 million), and Surat (3.562 million). Collectively, these seven cities accounted for 45.5 percent of the total annual vehicle registrations. Nationwide, two-wheelers constituted 75 percent of the total registered vehicles in 2020, up from 8.8 percent in 1951.

These trends reveal a historical lack of emphasis on sustainability in India’s transport planning, which remains focused on developing infrastructure to move vehicles rather than people. Such an approach has neglected public transportation systems, which are key to reducing transportation externalities, including traffic congestion and pollution.^[5]

Indian cities have relied on bus-based systems (buses and bus rapid transit systems), rail-based systems (metro rail, suburban rail, trams), and privately owned vehicles, including shared options (paratransit or informal public transport systems) for mass mobility. Against the current demand of 130,000 buses (estimated to increase to 220,000 by 2031), 127 Indian cities offer formal bus services, with a fleet of 46,000 buses. Of these, 36,000 buses operate in 53 cities with populations over 10 lakh.^[6] However, there are wide variations: Bengaluru operates 53 buses per 100,000 people (the highest ratio), while Lucknow operates only six (the lowest).^[7] Among these 36,000 buses, 82 percent are operational in megacities alone. Unorganised systems, including private buses and intermediate public transport (IPT),^[c] meet the enormous demand in other cities.

Metro rail systems operate in 19 cities and are under development in seven others.^[8] While four cities are evaluating metro rail proposals, 20 cities have undertaken feasibility studies for Metro Lite and three for Metro Neo.^[9] Despite the growing recognition of metro rail as a panacea for urban transport woes, metro ridership often falls short of capacity projections.^[10] Conversely, bus-based transit in most operational cities consistently carry more passengers. For example, despite the enormous shortage of buses, passengers use buses up to 9.25 times more than the metro services in nine cities with operational metro rail.^[11]

Examining these systems highlights areas where strategic planning and seamless integration can further optimise services, increase efficiencies, and better serve the diverse needs of different cities and populations. Coordinating various transport modes can foster holistic, sustainable multimodal integration, support a smooth energy transition, and aid in decarbonising the sector.^[12] Multimodal integration through institutional, operational, informational, physical, and fare integration can unlock a more seamless mobility experience for commuters.^[13]

Urban public transport systems in India operate in a fragmented environment, lacking a unified command structure, cohesive decision-making authority, and robust stakeholder involvement.^[14] National initiatives such as the National Urban Transport Policy (NUTP),^[15] launched in 2006, the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM),^[16] launched in 2005, and the Metro Rail Policy, 2017^[17] mandate the establishment of Unified Metropolitan Transport Authorities (UMTAs) to manage diverse transport modes. However, implementation remains limited. Where UMTAs exist, their effectiveness is often hindered by inadequate legislative support and empowerment.^[18] Although policy guidelines recommend a public transport modal share of 40-45 percent in million-plus cities and 75 percent in those with over 5 million people, the average remains around 33 percent in Tier-1 and Tier-2 cities, and only 4 percent in Tier-3 towns.^[19],[20]

These shortcomings hinder the establishment of integrated multimodal transport systems, increasing travel times and costs. Urban centres, including Delhi, Mumbai, Bengaluru, and Kolkata, lose an estimated US$22 billion annually to the negative externalities of road congestion.^[21] Moreover, the institutional mechanisms differ based on a city’s size and complexity of public transport systems. Effective integration across institutional, operational, informational, and fare dimensions is necessary for efforts like the ‘National Common Mobility Card,’ launched with much fanfare in 2011, to be beneficial.

Against this backdrop, the Observer Research Foundation (ORF), Ola Mobility Institute (OMI Foundation), Transportation Research and Injury Prevention Centre-Indian Institute of Technology Delhi (TRIP Centre-IIT Delhi), and the MCGM Centre for Municipal Capacity Building and Research (MCMCR) organised an Urban Mobility Conclave on 28 June 2024 in Mumbai. The day-long conclave included three expert roundtable discussions under the theme, “Redefining Sustainable Urban Mobility: New Approaches for Integrated Multimodal Transport Systems”.

The discussions involved bureaucrats, academicians, government officials, mobility service providers, and researchers from various think tanks. They provided valuable insights into the critical dimensions of achieving integrated and sustainable multimodal transport systems in urban India through: i) Institutional and Governance Integration, ii) Physical and Operational Integration, and iii) Information and Fare Integration. Annexure A lists the participants.

The discussions underscored the need for innovative approaches to urban transportation and highlighted the potential for collaborative efforts in addressing the challenges faced by India’s rapidly growing cities. They aimed to enable multimodal integration and improve seamless connectivity.

The rest of this report captures the essence of these discussions. Drawing on expert insights, supported by in-depth secondary research and successful global case studies, they chart a roadmap for integrated, sustainable multimodal transport systems in urban India. Each chapter identifies existing barriers and presents policy recommendations across three levels:

• ‘Stroke of Pen’ Recommendations: Relatively straightforward measures that involve minor adjustments to existing policy frameworks and can be implemented in a short timeframe.
• Medium-term Recommendations: Measures requiring amendments to current rules, regulations, or policy frameworks through government orders, typically taking several months to implement.
• Long-term Recommendations: Measures that require parliamentary or legislative amendments to existing laws or require the enactment of new ones.

^[a] This refers to both two-wheelers and four-wheelers.

^[b] Two-wheelers accounted for 75 percent of registered vehicles in 2020, recording a CAGR of 10.47 percent over 10 years, followed by four-wheelers, with 10.29 percent CAGR.

^[c] IPT, or paratransit, is an on-demand transportation service that supplements public transit by offering flexible transportation services, such as auto rickshaws, taxis, minibuses, and cycle rickshaws. Though IPT does not work on any fixed route, it is critical for first- and last-mile connectivity and as a feeder to public transit systems.

^[1] Sanchari Mukhopadhyay, “Budget 2023-24: What Can it Offer for the Development of Indian Cities?,” Down to Earth, January 31, 2023.

^[2] New Delhi, Ministry of Road Transport & Highways, Transport Research Wing, Road Transport Year Book

(2019-20), https://morth.nic.in/sites/default/files/RTYB_Publication_2019_20%20(1).pdf

^[3] Namita Singh et al., “Projection of Private Vehicle Stock in India Up to 2050,” Transportation Research Procedia (2018), https://www.wctrs-society.com/wp-content/uploads/abstracts/mumbai/WCTR2019_Mumbai_641.pdf

^[4] New Delhi, Ministry of Road Transport & Highways, Transport Research Wing, Road Transport Year Book

(2019-20)

^[5] Nandan Dawda, “Towards A Comprehensive Framework for Public Transport System Planning in India,” ORF Occasional Paper No. 455, November 2024, Observer Research Foundation. https://www.orfonline.org/public/uploads/posts/pdf/20241123112003.pdf

^[6] WRI India, Public Private Partnerships in Bus Operations in Indian Cities, May 2021, https://shaktifoundation.in/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/Annex-5-PPP-in-Bus-Operations-in-Indian-cities.pdf

^[7] Nandan Dawda, “A Matter of Choice: Determining Public Transport Systems in Urban India,” Observer Research Foundation, February 12, 2024, https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/a-matter-of-choice-determining-public-transport-systems-for-urban-india

^[8] Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, Government of India, Annual Report 2022-23, https://mohua.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/2688HUA-ENGLISH-19-4-2023.pdf

^[9] “Metro Rail Projects in India – A Quick Snapshot,” The Metro Rail Guy, November 25, 2024, https://themetrorailguy.com/

^[10] “Metros in India Have Less than 50% Projected Ridership, Says IIT-D Report,” Business Standard, January 2, 2024, https://www.business-standard.com/india-news/metros-in-india-have-less-than-50-projected-ridership-says-iit-d-report-124010200455_1.html

^[11] Nandan Dawda, “A Matter of Choice: Determining Public Transport Systems for Urban India”

^[12] Nandan Dawda, “Energy Transition in India’s Transport Sector: Current Policies, Key Challenges, and Potential Pathways,” ORF Occasional Paper No. 459, December 2024, Observer Research Foundation, https://www.orfonline.org/public/uploads/posts/pdf/20241220131446.pdf.

^[13] “Towards A Comprehensive Framework for Public Transport System Planning in India,” https://www.orfonline.org/research/towards-a-comprehensive-framework-for-public-transport-system-planning-in-india

^[14] Nandan Dawda, “The Need for Integrated and Sustainable Multimodal Transport Systems in Indian Cities,” Observer Research Foundation, October 18, 2024, https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/the-need-for-integrated-and-sustainable-multimodal-transport-systems-in-indian-cities

^[15] Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, National Urban Transport Policy, Government of India, 2006, https://mohua.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/TransportPolicy.pdf

^[16] Ministry of Urban Development, Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM), Government of India, 2007, https://mohua.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/1Mission%20Overview%20English(1).pdf

^[17] Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, “Metro Rail Policy,” Government of India, 2017, https://www.mohua.gov.in/upload/whatsnew/59a3f7f130eecMetro_Rail_Policy_2017.pdf

^[18] Dhaval Desai, “Lost in Transit: Unified Metropolitan Transport Authority,” Observer Research Foundation, January 8, 2022, https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/lost-in-transit-unified-metropolitan-transport-authority-umta

^[19] Ministry of Urban Development, Recommendations of Working Group on Urban Transport for 12^th Five-Year Plan, New Delhi, Ministry of Urban Development, 2021, https://mohua.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/UT_FYP_12.pdf

^[20] Nandan Dawda et al., “Efficiency Based Evaluation of Public Transport and Paratransit Systems With a View to Integrating Transportation,” Transportation Research Record, 2675(3), 17-32 (2021), https://doi.org/10.1177/0361198120980322

^[21] Shikha Juyal et al., Transforming India’s Mobility: A Perspective, NITI Ayog, 2018, https://e-amrit.niti.gov.in/assets/admin/dist/img/new-fronend-img/report-pdf/BCG.pdf

• Urbanisation in India
• Transportation
• India
• integrated multi modal transit system
• integrated multi modal transportation in india
• integrated multimodal transportation system
• multimodal transport system
• multimodal transportation

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