Introduction
Increasing political, strategic, and economic engagements with the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region has been a notable feature of Chinese foreign policy, especially since the launch of its flagship Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in 2013. One of the key countries with which China has strengthened its engagement is Saudi Arabia. The kingdom is an important regional power, with influence in the Arab-Islamic world as well as in the global energy market. In December 2022, during a visit by Chinese President Xi Jinping to Riyadh, the two countries signed a comprehensive strategic partnership agreement that underlined the growing Chinese inroads into a region that has traditionally been regarded as an American sphere of influence.[1] The China-Saudi Arabia strategic partnership has the potential to impact the geopolitical makeup of the entire region, which is part of India’s extended neighbourhood.
In the three-and-a-half decades since they established formal diplomatic relations in July 1990, China and Saudi Arabia’s relations have grown exponentially.[2] Regular political engagements and cultural exchanges have supported robust energy and trade ties. Additionally, both have emphasised the need to increase bilateral investments, while promising to align the goals of the BRI with Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030, complementing each other’s developmental agenda.[3] Security and strategic cooperation have also been discussed in bilateral forums in recent years. Notably, the announcement of the Iran-Saudi Arabia diplomatic breakthrough in March 2023 in Beijing underscored the degree of trust Saudi Arabia and China have developed over the years.[4]
Although energy and trade are the anchors of Sino-Saudi relations, their growing political and strategic ties have also attracted attention. Most analysts view the bilateral ties as part of China’s expanding relations with the MENA region, designed to enhance Beijing’s strategic and economic engagements.[5] At the same time, the growth in bilateral relations is viewed as Saudi Arabia’s way of diversifying its external relations, given its domestic economic reform agenda, and as a way of strategic hedging.[6] Thus the expansion of Saudi Arabia-China relations should be viewed as a strategic partnership that has grown despite the fast-changing geopolitical trends in MENA and the uncertain global geopolitical scenario.
Key Partnership Areas
Political Engagements
Political engagements between Saudi Arabia and China have increased in the past two decades. In the 1990s, Saudi Arabia began recalibrating its foreign policy to ‘Look East’ as part of its effort to expand external relations beyond conventional partners such as the US and West European nations.[7] Accordingly, Saudi Arabia’s relations with Asian countries such as China, India, Japan, and South Korea improved gradually. While economic imperatives formed the basis of the ‘Look East’ policy, the political component became more apparent in the 2010s as the US ‘pivot to Asia’ showed its declining appetite for involvement in the MENA region.
Saudi Arabia-China links started soon after formal relations were established in 1990. Then Chinese President Jiang Zemin visited Saudi Arabia in 1999, while King Abdullah went to China in 2006—these were the first head of state-level exchanges between the two countries.[8] Since then, the number of political contacts between the two has increased, especially after the launch of China’s BRI and Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030. In 2016, China published an ‘Arab Policy Paper’ underlining the historical, civilisational, and geo-economic basis of its growing interactions with the Arab world.[9] The changing regional and international geopolitical environment at the time was a catalyst for the two countries to strengthen political relations.
The most prominent recent visits so far have been those of Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman’s to China in February 2019 and President Xi Jinping’s to Saudi Arabia in December 2022.[10] These have set the tone for increased political, economic, and strategic engagements. In September 2024, when Chinese Premier Li Qiang visited Saudi Arabia to co-chair the fourth meeting of the High-Level Chinese-Saudi Joint Committee, he underlined the priority China attaches to relations with Saudi Arabia as part of its foreign policy and relations with the MENA region.[11]
The February 2019 visit of Crown Prince Mohammed was notable for its strategic symbolism, as he was touring Asia in the aftermath of international criticism following the murder of dissident Saudi journalist Jamal Khashoggi in Ankara in October 2018, in which the Saudi royal family was suspected to be involved.[12] The visit was also an indication of Saudi Arabia prioritising Asia. Accordingly, Prince Mohammed visited India, Pakistan, and China.[13] An important outcome of the visit was a decision to hasten the signing of an implementation plan connecting the BRI with Vision 2030.[14]
The visit of Xi Jinping to Saudi Arabia in December 2022, his second, had an even more potent political symbolism. He attended three summit meetings, including the bilateral China-Saudi summit, the China-Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) summit, and the China-Arab summit.[15] The latter two were the Saudi way of signalling to China its willingness to act as China’s doorway to MENA, especially as China-Iran relations were progressing fast while Saudi Arabia faced problems with the US.[16] Beyond the political signalling, the visit saw the signing of a comprehensive strategic partnership (CSP) agreement, realising a promise made during Xi’s earlier Riyadh visit in January 2016.[17] The discussions focused on strengthening cooperation in economic and strategic affairs, with an estimated US$30 billion worth of deals signed between the two countries.[18]
The two have exchanged several high-level political visits and meetings in the two years since. Apart from Premier Li Qiang’s September 2024 visit to Riyadh,[19] there was Saudi foreign minister Faisal bin Farhan’s trip to Beijing in May 2024 to attend the 10th Ministerial Conference of the China-Arab States Cooperation Forum.[20] Many more ministerial-level meetings and exchanges have occurred at different bilateral and multilateral forums. For example, in March 2023, Foreign Minister Faisal and his Chinese counterpart Qin Gang met in New Delhi on the sidelines of the G20 Foreign Ministers’ Meeting.[21]
Energy and Economic Ties
Economic engagements form the backbone of Sino-Saudi relations. In 2023, their bilateral trade was estimated at US$107 billion, a marginal drop from the US$116 billion recorded in 2022.[22] In terms of the balance of trade, Saudi exports are much higher, given the large Chinese imports of crude oil from them. China is the largest importer of Saudi crude oil. Of the US$78 billion Saudi exports to China in 2022, nearly US$66 billion, or 85 percent, were hydrocarbons, while another US$10.5 billion or 13 percent, were chemicals, plastic and rubber.[23] On the other hand, of the total US$38 billion of Chinese exports to Saudi Arabia, the majority comprised consumer goods (50 percent), while the rest were machines and electronic products (24 percent), metals (14 percent), and textiles and clothing (10 percent).[24] The two sides have regularly exchanged business delegations and official visits to discuss enhancing trade aligned with the BRI and Saudi Vision 2030 goals.[25]
Besides bilateral trade, there has been a two-way flow of investments. In August 2024, the Public Investment Fund (PIF) of Saudi Arabia signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) with six Chinese financial institutions—the Agricultural Bank of China, Bank of China, China Construction Bank, China Export and Credit Insurance Corp., Export-Import Bank of China and the Industrial and Commercial Bank of China, for investments worth US$50 billion.[26] PIF is already heavily invested in China, especially in the energy and petrochemical sectors. In July 2024, Saudi’s Aramco acquired a US$3.4-billion stake in China’s Rongsheng Petrochemical Co. Ltd.[27]
Chinese investments in Saudi Arabia, too, have increased. According to Chinese sources, nearly 750 Chinese companies are active in the Saudi market in various sectors, including building and construction, energy and petrochemicals.[28] In September 2024, Aramco signed a five-year cooperation framework agreement with the China National Building Material Group Co, to work together on advanced materials and industrial development.[29]
The sectors that the two sides have prioritised include transportation and logistics, financial markets, building and construction, energy and petrochemicals, renewables, food and water security, and sustainability. During President Xi’s 2022 visit, the two countries agreed to strengthen bilateral cooperation in other areas including the digital economy, artificial intelligence, and mining.[30] In December 2024, the Saudi-Chinese Business Council Forum, held in Beijing, saw 25 Saudi and 30 Chinese investors participating; 24 agreements in healthcare, biotechnology, and other areas were signed.[31]
Investments and cooperation in healthcare between the two countries gained momentum during the COVID-19 pandemic. At the bilateral business forum in December 2024, Saudi Health Minister Fahad Al-Jalajel described the two countries’ partnership as “profound, (and) rooted in a mutual commitment to advancing global health and addressing its challenges…particularly in promoting innovation in biotechnology and robotics and localizing healthcare industries to ensure resilience and sustainability.”[32] China and Saudi Arabia are also working together on emerging areas such as environmental security and space exploration.
Defence and Security
Defence and security are two other important areas of cooperation, with defence trade and maritime security, along with combating terrorism, radicalism, extremism, terror financing and organised crime, being the focus areas. There is greater coordination and exchange of information and expertise between the two countries in all of them. Though Saudi Arabia’s reliance on the US for weapons imports remains high, with nearly 75 percent of its imported arms coming from that country,[33] it feels that the US has not been as forthcoming in supporting it as it would have liked. For instance, the US has only grudgingly backed Saudi Arabia’s military intervention in Yemen since March 2015, and indeed, under President Joe Biden’s administration, has even criticised it.[34] It did not offer the kind of support Saudi Arabia expected after the Houthi rebels of Yemen attacked and damaged its oil installations in Abqaiq and Khurais in September 2019. Saudi Arabia is thus working towards diversifying its defence and security partnerships, of which the principal beneficiary is China.
Between 2019 and 2024, China was the fourth largest arms exporter in the world.[35] In 2020 and again in 2021, its military exports to Saudi Arabia were valued at US$80 million.[36] Between 2011-15 and 2016-20, China’s arms exports to Saudi Arabia rose by 400 percent.[37] In 2017, Saudi Arabia procured Chinese Wing Loong II drones, and, in March 2022 entered into a joint venture deal to design and construct them locally. The agreement was signed between the Saudi Advanced Communications and Electronics Systems (SACES) and the China Electronics Technology Group Corporation (CETC).[38] In June 2024, Saudi Defence Minister Khalid bin Salman, the younger brother of Mohammed bin Salman, visited China to explore ways to strengthen military and defence ties.[39]
No doubt, the US remains the most important defence and security partner for Saudi Arabia. The US’s military presence in the Gulf region works to the advantage of Saudi national security as well as the regional security in the Gulf and wider West Asian region. Saudi Arabia is unlikely to undermine it, and thus the extent of its defence cooperation with China has its limits.
Cultural Linkages
In recent years, Saudi Arabia and China have enhanced cultural and educational cooperation. Educational exchanges, language studies, cultural linkages and collaborations in other “soft” domains form the basis of their growing cultural contacts. While visiting China in February 2019, Mohammed bin Salman announced that Mandarin would be introduced into the Saudi school curriculum at all levels,[40] modifying the one-language formula that had for long been the norm in its schools.[41] Media reports suggest that till September 2024, nearly 175 Mandarin teachers had been employed in Saudi schools at different levels.[42] The intention is clearly to enhance Saudi students’ understanding of China and expand cultural and economic ties.[43]
China, too, has worked to expand Arabic language teaching in its educational institutions.[44] Many Saudi students prefer to seek higher education abroad, but lately, in addition to the US and European countries, China, Japan, and South Korea have emerged as preferred educational destinations. As of 2022, 174 Saudi students were studying Chinese in China; many more were enrolled in science and technology subjects in Chinese universities.[45] Similarly, 688 Chinese students studied in Saudi universities between 2017 and 2022. According to Diang Peng, president of Beijing Language and Culture University, nearly 800 Saudi students are expected to join language and culture studies programmes in China over the next five years.[46]
Cultural collaborations have also increased, with 2025 being celebrated as the China-Saudi Arabia Year of Culture.[47] During his September 2024 visit, Chinese Premier Li Qiang urged both sides to “advance cooperation in culture, think tanks, education, media, non-governmental and people-to-people exchanges, and continuously enhance mutual understanding and friendship.”[48] There is cooperation in sports, tourism, and entertainment as well.
The Backdrop of Regional Issues
The regional security situation in the Middle East—with its civil wars, conflicts, and instability—is of interest to both Saudi Arabia and China. Conflicts in Iraq, Syria, Yemen, and Afghanistan have been part of the discussions between the two countries. During President Xi’s visit in 2022, the two sides discussed different regional issues extensively and agreed to work together towards finding solutions. They agreed, for example, on the need to maintain a non-proliferation regime within the purview of International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) resolutions to keep Iran’s nuclear ambitions in check.[49] Eventually, China facilitated the breakthrough between Iran and Saudi Arabia.[50] In November 2024, the China-Iran-Saudi Arabia Trilateral Joint Committee held its second meeting in Riyadh to follow up on the progress made in the agreement signed between the three countries.
The eruption of the Israel-Hamas conflict in the wake of the 7 October 2023 attack by Hamas on Israel has become a further cause of concern. While China has maintained its relations with Israel, President Xi himself has criticised Israel’s blanket bombardment of Gaza civilians and condemned its violations of international law. This has been interpreted by some as China’s inclination towards its Arab partners, while others see it as an effort to come across as more neutral than the US.[51] Certainly, the tectonic shifts taking place in the region, the Israeli killings of top Hamas and Hezbollah leaders, as well as the developments in Syria, are of great concern for both China and Saudi Arabia. China has long supported a two-state solution to the Israel-Palestine conflict, and participated in forums where the issue was discussed, but has also steadfastly stayed away from any direct mediatory role.
It is not just Saudi Arabia; China has also emerged as one of the most important economic partners of all the GCC countries. Despite the well-known differences among the GCC countries, they do function as a bloc on some issues; thus, China, by enhancing its political and economic engagements with the forum, has emerged as its most important international developmental partner.
Global Geopolitics
With the global order strained due to US-China trade competition and US-Russia tensions following the Ukraine war, the Sino-Saudi partnership has significance for international politics as well. Saudi Arabia was always an ally of the US, dependent on it to maintain regional order in the Middle East, while China and Russia were the important partners of its arch enemy, Iran. The softening of Saudi stance on Iran and its growing partnerships with both China and Russia, thus introduces a new dimension.
The cooling of relations between Saudi Arabia and the US under the Biden administration was a reason for the former to seek reconciliation with Iran using China’s help. The Israel-Hamas conflict has also forced the Saudi leadership to distance itself from the Abraham Accords, signed between Israel and a number of countries—i.e., the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Sudan, and Morocco—in late 2020, by which they agreed to recognise Israel and normalise relations with it. Though the breakthrough was achieved during Donald Trump’s presidency, the Biden administration had carried forward the process, bringing Saudi Arabia too to the verge of normalisation with Israel before the Hamas attack happened.[52] Given the shifts in Syria, the reversals Iran has lately faced in its confrontations with Israel, and Trump’s return to White House in January 2025, both Saudi Arabia’s and China’s responses to the evolving situation will be observed with keen interest.
China and Saudi Arabia have also enhanced multilateral cooperation, visible in the expansion of BRICS from its original five members—Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa—to include Iran, Egypt, Ethiopia, the UAE, Argentina, and Saudi Arabia. (Argentina has since backed out after a change of government and Saudi Arabia remains undecided.) Even so, the BRICS expansion is a significant geopolitical development, especially as the US and China continue to be at loggerheads on the issues of trade and global governance. China and Saudi Arabia are cooperating on other multilateral forums too.
Conclusion
China and Saudi Arabia have elevated their bilateral relations into a comprehensive strategic partnership. Sino-Saudi interests are now aligned at multiple levels. While energy and economy form the backbone of the partnership, the strengthening of their political and strategic ties has international implications.
The two sides view each other as inevitable partners in development, as reflected in their decision to align the BRI and the Saudi Vision 2030 programmes; diplomacy and cultural cooperation have brought them even closer. Undoubtedly, changing global and regional dynamics have also played a crucial role in deepening their strategic partnership.
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