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Manini, “Charging Infrastructure: The Missing Link in India’s EVs Transition,” ORF Occasional Paper No. 497, Observer Research Foundation, October 2025.
India is rapidly urbanising, with projections indicating that more than 40 percent of the population will reside in urban areas by 2030.[1] This shift places tremendous pressure on the country’s urban transport systems, leading to increased vehicle ownership, congestion, pollution, and rising dependence on fossil fuel imports.
According to India’s Fourth Biennial Update Report (BUR-4) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, the transport sector contributed 13.28 percent of the country’s total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of 2,959 million tonnes of CO₂ equivalent (MtCO2e) in 2020, with road transport comprising 94 percent, or 360 MtCO2e, of these emissions.[2] Furthermore, projections by TERI (The Energy and Resources Institute) note that tank-to-wheel GHG emissions from transport could increase from 312 MtCO2e in 2019–20 to 735 MtCO2e by 2030–31 if current trends are not reversed.[3]
In this context, electric vehicles (EVs) present a key solution to decarbonise transport, improve air quality, and enhance energy security.[a] The Indian government has prioritised electric mobility within its broader clean energy and innovation goals, recognising its strategic role in reducing fuel reliance and meeting climate targets. [4]
This paper explores the evolution of India’s EVs ecosystem, focusing on why adoption remains slow, despite policy support and rising awareness. It argues that the biggest bottleneck is the lack of reliable, equitable, and accessible charging infrastructure—a core enabler of large-scale EVs adoption.
India is on the cusp of an EVs revolution, fuelled by ambitious climate goals, energy security concerns, and escalating air pollution in urban centres. As part of the global Electric Vehicles Initiative launched by Clean Energy Ministerial in 2010, India has positioned EVs as central to its clean energy transition.
India’s domestic EVs market was valued at US$8.49 billion in 2024, with over 1.28 million EVs sold as of November.[5],[6] FY2024 alone saw 1.75 million EV sales, a 40.31 percent year-on-year growth. This growth is driven largely by two-wheelers (2Ws) and three-wheelers (3Ws) (passenger plus commercial), which make up about 94 percent of all EVs sold.[7] However, notably, 2Ws alone comprised 57 percent of the total number.[8]
India’s EV sector is projected to grow at a CAGR (Compounded Annual Growth Rate) of 66.52 percent between 2025 and 2030, with the market expected to reach US$113.99 billion by 2029.[9] According to the RMI-NITI EV Report, government ambitions for 2030 include 70 percent EV penetration for commercial vehicles, 30 percent for private cars, 40 percent for buses, and 80 percent for 2Ws and 3Ws, translating to a projected 16 million EVs and the creation of 5 million jobs.[10],[11]
Figure 1: EV Sales Penetration Targets by Vehicle Segment
Source: RMI-NITI EV Report [12]
This transition aligns with India’s ambition to achieve 500 GW of non-fossil fuel energy capacity and cut emissions intensity by 45 percent (from 2005 levels) by 2030 under the Paris Agreement, and its net-zero goals by 2070.[13],[14],[15]
Despite this momentum, EV sales surged to over 2 million units but still accounted for only 8 percent of total vehicle sales in FY2024, revealing enormous potential for expansion.[16] This surge has been supported by declining battery costs, growing consumer awareness, and policy incentives under schemes like FAME II. From FY2014 to FY2023, state-level adoption has been led by Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Delhi, and Rajasthan, with Tamil Nadu breaking into the top five in FY2024 due to progressive policy measures such as tax exemptions, land and stamp duty relief, and subsidies for setting up EV manufacturing and charging infrastructure under its 2023 EV Policy.[17]
However, a critical barrier remains: the shortage of reliable and accessible charging infrastructure. To reach a 30-percent EV market share by 2030, India will need an estimated 1.32 million public charging stations, catering to both slow and fast charging needs.[18],[19] At present, most public chargers are unidirectional, but as the ecosystem matures, bi-directional chargers (where EVs can feed energy back to the grid) will become essential for a smarter, more integrated power system. Therefore, scaling this infrastructure is not just a prerequisite for adoption. It is also crucial for building a resilient and self-reliant EV ecosystem that supports domestic manufacturing, job creation, and grid integration under the ‘Make in India’ initiative.
As India accelerates its shift to electric mobility, developing a robust charging infrastructure is crucial. While the EV market is picking up pace, the current network is far from sufficient to meet its future needs. According to the Ministry of Power, India has 29,277 public charging stations run by 83 Charge Point Operators (CPOs), as of August 2025.[20] The infrastructure is concentrated largely in urban areas, with Karnataka, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, and Tamil Nadu accounting for about 60 percent of the stations, leaving the rural and semi-urban regions, which are vital for broader EV adoption, with limited public charging infrastructure.
Figure 2: Distribution of Public Charging Stations, by State (as of August 2025)
Source: Author’s own, using data from the Ministry of Power[21]
Figure 3: Concentration of Public Charging Stations in Five Indian States
Source: Author’s own calculations, using data from the Ministry of Power[22]
Table 1: EV Sales and Public Charging Stations (PCS), Top 10 States
| State | EV Sales (FY2025) | PCS (as of August 2025) |
| Uttar Pradesh | 377,526 | 2,326 |
| Maharashtra | 246,221 | 4,155 |
| Karnataka | 173,559 | 6,097 |
| Tamil Nadu | 137,699 | 1,781 |
| Bihar | 113,645 | 521 |
| Madhya Pradesh | 107,230 | 1,147 |
| Rajasthan | 106,963 | 1,531 |
| Delhi | 83,487 | 1,967 |
| Kerala | 82,368 | 1,392 |
| Gujarat | 69,134 | 1,208 |
Sources: Ministry of Power and Autocar Professional[23],[24]
The latest FY2025 data reveals a non-uniform relationship between EV sales and PCS deployment. For instance, Bihar ranks fifth in EV sales, with over 113,000 new registrations in FY2025, but has relatively limited public charging infrastructure, at just 521 operational stations as of August 2025. Across states, this mismatch reflects both rapid changes in EV adoption and lagging, uneven infrastructure expansion, because sales alone do not translate into PCS.
Karnataka’s lead in public EV charging infrastructure (as illustrated in Figure 3) reflects more than just numbers. It is tied closely to early policy action backed by institutional coordination. In 2017, it became the first state to adopt a dedicated EV policy, offering government land to private CPOs on a concessional lease or rental basis, aiming to ease entry barriers in high-cost urban zones.[25],[26] Unlike most states, where Distribution Companies (DISCOMs) serve a passive regulatory function, the Bangalore Electricity Supply Company (BESCOM) took direct ownership for deploying charging stations: identifying sites, managing installations, maintaining infrastructure, while coordinating closely with both government agencies and private firms.[27] This led to over 112 public charging stations being operationalised in Phase 1 alone, a rare case of sanctioned stations actually becoming functional.[28]
That said, even Karnataka’s model remains lopsided. Despite land provisions, fiscal support and demand-side incentives, nearly 85 percent of the state’s chargers are clustered in Bengaluru, leaving most other districts underserved.[29] As EV registrations climb and daily charging demand intensifies, especially among 2W and 3W users in peri-urban areas, the state’s infrastructure has struggled to keep pace.[30] However, it is important to note that many 2Ws and 3Ws owners, who drive sales in states like Bihar, also primarily rely on home charging; therefore, the immediate pressure on public networks differs by region and vehicle type.[31] Still, as more four-wheelers (4Ws) and commercial EVs enter the fleet, requiring faster, more frequent charging, the demand for publicly accessible and strategically distributed PCS will intensify.
The gaps are even more pronounced at the national level. As of July 2025, India’s EV-to-charger ratio was 1:235, far below the global average of six to 20 EVs per charger.[32],[33] Projections highlight the need for massive expansion to meet future demand. For instance, India Brand Equity Foundation (IBEF) estimates that the nine largest Indian cities, each with over 4 million residents, will require 18,000 public charging stations by 2030.[34] The Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) expects 16 million annual EV sales by 2030, meaning that one charger will be required per 40 EVs, and over 400,000 new chargers every year.[35]
Although official records show nearly 30,000 public chargers across India, the on-ground reality is far more complex. Studies from platforms like ExperiencesWithEVs indicate that many chargers, especially in urban areas, are non-functional, and availability is even more limited in rural regions.[36] Nationally, only about 14,008 chargers support CCS2 and Type 2 chargers, and a significant proportion of these are concentrated in metro cities. Of these, approximately 4,565 are out of service or unreliable, with the highest rates of faults found in urban clusters (see Figure 4), while coverage along highways, vital for long-distance travel, remains minimal. Notably, Tamil Nadu is the only state where approximately 90 percent of the chargers are located within one km of a highway.[37] This highlights a clear disconnect between reported infrastructure growth and the practical usability of charging stations, with direct consequences for everyday EV users.
Figure 4: Non-Functional Public Charging Stations in Metro Cities
Source: ExperiencesWithEVs[38]
Therefore, while limited EV models and high upfront costs impact EV adoption, the lack of equitable charging infrastructure is a barrier. Expanding these networks in high-growth and inter-city corridors is crucial to alleviating ‘range anxiety’.[b] In line with this, policy initiatives have been rolled out to promote investment in charging infrastructure and ensure equitable access across regions, helping to meet India’s electric mobility targets.
India’s EV transition is anchored in a comprehensive policy framework stimulating both supply and demand. While flagship schemes like FAME have led this shift, complementary policy measures (both direct and indirect) have also emerged to strengthen the EV charging ecosystem.
Figure 5 shows a timeline of the various schemes supporting EV charging infrastructure in the country, and Table 2 provides a comparative overview of the same.
Figure 5: Central Policies on EV Charging Infrastructure: A Timeline
Source: Author’s own
Table 2: Key EV Policies
| Scheme | NEMMP 2020[39] | FAME I[40] | FAME II[41] | PM- E DRIVE[42] |
| Duration | January 2013- 2020 | April 2015- March 2019 | April 2019-March 2024 | April 2024- March 2026 |
| Budget | INR 14,000 crore[43] | INR 795 crore (later increased to INR 895 crore) [44] | INR 10,000 crore (later increased to INR 11,500 crore, including INR 366 crore from FAME I) [45] | INR 10,900 crore (including INR 778 crore from EMPS scheme) |
| Objective | Set the foundation for the EV industry and fuel security | Boost EV demand and domestic production | Expand charging infrastructure and EV adoption | Improve urban EV-based public transport |
| Current Status | The target of 14-16 percent EV penetration by 2020 was not achieved[46] | Only INR 529 crore was utilised; the remaining INR 366 crore was transferred to FAME II[47] Supported 2.8 lakh EVs and 30 OEMs (Original Equipment Manufacturer) | INR 839 crore (7 percent of total outlay) allotted to charging infrastructure (reduced from the originally planned INR 1,000 crore); only INR 633 crore was utilised[48] | INR 2,000 crore (18 percent of overall outlay) allocated for charging infrastructure |
| Interventions for Charging Infrastructure | No significant impact on charging infrastructure[49] | DHI sanctioned 520 electric vehicle charging stations (EVCs); only 452 got installed by December 2021 | MHI sanctioned: ● 2,877 EVCS in 68 cities to 22 PSUs[50] ● 1,576 EVCS on expressways and highways via 3 PSUs ● 7,432 EVCS via 3 oil PSUs[51] | MHI intends to support EV PCS with a subsidy of up to 80 percent on upstream (behind-the-meter) infrastructure, with 100 percent coverage in special cases, and targeted: [52],[53] ● 48,400 chargers for e-2Ws/e-3Ws ● 22,100 chargers for e-4Ws ● 1,800 chargers for e-buses |
| Challenges | Heavy reliance on the private sector did not materialise as expected | Inefficient fund use and low installation rate | Delays, DISCOM issues, rejected applications for connections, land approvals, and safety concerns at fuelling stations [54] | Execution gaps, but a better urban infrastructure focus is expected |
| Lessons | Stronger public-private partnership (PPP) model needed | Improve fund allocation and rollout | Enhance DISCOM coordination and clearances | Streamline implementation to avoid previous oversights |
Source: Author’s own, based on data from various sources.
Complementary Measures that Enhance EV Charging Infrastructure:
To increase accessibility, the government has mandated a public charging station every 1 km in cities and 20 km on highways, with 100 km intervals for heavy-duty vehicles.[60] So far, 29 states and Union Territories have notified dedicated EV policies, with three others releasing drafts.[61] While this signal is gathering momentum, scaling up the charging infrastructure requires a strategic pivot beyond the current PSU-led model. Private sector participation must be incentivised through a stable policy environment, faster approvals, viability gap funding, and smarter tax structures. Despite the progress and intent, challenges remain in execution and scale. The following section delves into the bottlenecks hindering the effective rollout of EVs charging infrastructure.
Building EV charging infrastructure requires adequate space not only for charging equipment but also for vehicle parking during the process. However, land acquisition remains a challenge, as it involves navigating high costs, bureaucratic delays and occasional public opposition.[62],[63] For instance, a recent Tata Power Solar Energy project was sealed following local protests over land rights.[64] Similarly, acquiring land in cities like Delhi and Bengaluru is a cumbersome task.[65],[66]
While revenue-sharing models and fixed-period (Memoranda of Understanding) MoUs with CPOs partially address these issues, the lack of proper parking adds complexity. Compounding these challenges, charging stations are sometimes installed in unsuitable locations, such as sidewalks or low-demand areas, without thorough analysis of user needs and demand patterns.
Private and semi-public chargers can be accommodated in residential or commercial parking areas, but public charging networks demand careful location planning based on EV density, existing infrastructure, and grid capacity.[67] Without this, both accessibility and operational efficiency are compromised, slowing infrastructure expansion. This, in turn, weakens user confidence in the EV transition.
India’s diverse EV market spans from 2Ws and 3Ws to electric buses and heavy-duty vehicles, each with unique charging connector needs. Many small vehicles continue to rely on proprietary connectors, like regular household 15-amp sockets, which are incompatible with standard connectors like AC001, DC001, or Type 2. Meanwhile, 4Ws and commercial EVs typically use Type 2 or Bharat DC001 connectors. This lack of uniformity creates compatibility issues.
Organically, market trends show that most PCS are designed around standardised connectors like CCS2, with new entrants such as VinFast adopting this standard. However, this development also makes such stations unsuitable for many 2Ws and 3Ws. In 2021, the government mandated that public chargers include three fast connectors (CCS, CHAdeMO, Type-2 AC) and two slow/moderate connectors (Bharat DC-001, Bharat AC-001).[68] However, it refrained from standardising any connector type, leaving room for innovation but also resulting in fragmented infrastructure and low utilisation rates.
The absence of a dominant, standard connector increases costs for both manufacturers and operators, while confusing users and limiting station usability. Standardising connectors, especially for high-volume vehicle segments, is critical to ensure interoperability, reduce ‘charge anxiety,’ and accelerate infrastructure development.
Many early public chargers in India, especially those deployed under the FAME I scheme, were equipped with the Bharat-001 (GB/T) standard. However, with CCS2 emerging as the dominant global standard, these older connectors are increasingly incompatible with newer EV models. However, as of July 2025, Indian EVs have utilised only about 9,869 CCS2 chargers.[69] This mismatch has led to widespread underutilisation of legacy chargers. For instance, nearly 70 percent of the Kerala State Electricity Board’s 246 DC fast chargers are either Bharat DC-001 (GB/T) or CHAdeMO connectors, which do not have the capacity to charge many of the newer EV models that require CCS2 connectors.[70] As a result, many are poorly maintained, with missing connectors or broken displays, yet still occupy valuable land and grid infrastructure. This not only reduces the functional availability of charging points but also discourages private investment and delays network expansion. Therefore, addressing this obsolescence is essential to improving user experience, restoring investor confidence, and building a reliable, future-ready charging ecosystem.
India’s charging network currently comprises around 15,197 slow and moderate chargers, compared to only 10,756 fast chargers.[71] The imbalance presents a challenge for 4Ws and heavy-duty vehicles that require faster turnaround times and higher energy throughput. While normal chargers (typically 7–22 kilowatt (kW)) are cost-effective and energy-efficient, making them ideal for 2Ws and 3Ws, light commercial vehicles (up to 1 ton), and private overnight charging.[72] However, they are less practical for public areas where quick charging is essential. In contrast, high-power DC fast chargers (22–500 kW), required for buses and heavy-duty EVs. Higher demand on the power grid requires substantial infrastructure upgrades. The wide range of vehicle-specific charging needs makes infrastructure planning complex and costly. Balancing affordability with speed and grid readiness will be critical to deploying a charging network that meets the demands of a growing and diverse EV fleet.
The limited capacity of India’s electricity grid to support rising demand is a key constraint in scaling EV charging infrastructure. Fast chargers, in particular, require high-power connections that many local grids, especially in semi-urban and remote areas, are not equipped to handle. The existing grid suffers from outdated infrastructure, capacity bottlenecks, and financial stress within DISCOMs . Without upgrades, local transformers risk overloading, delaying the deployment of fast-charging networks.
Moreover, India’s dependence on coal-based power limits the grid’s flexibility. Unlike renewables or gas, thermal power plants are slow to respond to fluctuating loads, making it difficult to manage the peaks and troughs of EV charging demand. Safety risks, such as voltage spikes or poor power quality, can damage both chargers and vehicles, especially along highways. Insufficient grid modernisation, lack of technical expertise, and the absence of a coordinated policy framework further complicate efforts to build a resilient, EV-ready power network.
The upfront costs of establishing EV charging stations in India are high, driven primarily by land acquisition, electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE), and power supply infrastructure.[73] These costs can be broadly divided into two categories: fixed infrastructure costs and charger (hardware) costs. Depending on the charger type, setup costs can range anywhere from INR 1.5 lakh for basic alternating current (AC) units to over INR 30 lakhs for advanced direct current (DC) fast chargers, particularly in urban areas where land and grid upgrades are expensive.[74] These high costs often deter investment, especially in low-demand areas where low utilisation makes returns uncertain. Consumers also face relatively high electricity prices, further reducing the affordability and appeal of EVs. This creates a vicious cycle: high setup costs lead to inadequate infrastructure, which discourages EV adoption. Low EV adoption, in turn, limits revenue prospects, further reducing investment.
Setting up an EV charging station involves massive hardware expenses that vary by charger type, voltage, and power output. Entry-level AC chargers are relatively affordable, while fast DC chargers can cost several lakhs due to their higher voltage and capacity. Table 3 provides a breakdown of the price range depending on the type of charger.
Table 3: EV Charging Station Costs by Charger Type
| Charging Station Type | Voltage (V) | Power (KW) | Vehicle Type | Compatible Charger[c] | Cost |
| Level 1 (AC) | 240 V | <= 3.5 kW | 2W, 3W, 4W | Type 1, Bharat AC-001 | INR 15,000 - INR 30,000 |
| Level 1 (DC) | >= 48 V | <= 15 kW | 2W, 3W, 4W | Bharat DC-001 | INR 2, 50, 000 - INR 4,00,000 |
| Level 2 (AC) | 380 V - 400 V | <= 22 kW | 2W, 3W, 4W | Type 1, Type 2, GB/T, Bharat AC-001 | INR 50, 000 - INR 1, 00, 000 |
| Level 3 (DC) | 200 V - 1000 V | Up to 400 kW | 4W | Type 2, CHAdeMO, CCS1, CCS2 | INR 5, 00, 000 - INR 15, 00, 000 |
Source: TATA AIG Insurance[75]
Beyond chargers, EV charging stations require substantial infrastructure investments, covering everything from electrical upgrades and civil works to land and labour. These costs vary with station location, urban density, and power requirements. Table 4 breaks down the fixed infrastructure costs, illustrating the sheer size of investment needed to get a charging station operational.
Table 4: Fixed Infrastructure Cost for EV Charging Station
| Requirements | Cost |
| Energy Metres, Connections, and Electric Transformers | INR 7,50,000 |
| Land Lease at INR 50,000 per Month | INR 6,00,000 |
| Technical and Maintenance Team | INR 3,00,000 |
| Civil and Construction Works | INR 2,50,000 |
| Brand and Marketing | INR 50,000 |
| EVSE Software Integration and Management | INR 40,000 |
Note: Costs might vary depending on the charging station location.
Source: TATA AIG Insurance[76]
For charging stations to meet current government norms, they must include at least two slow chargers (AC) and three fast chargers (DC). The cost of each charger will vary depending on model, speed, and compatibility, affecting both setup budgets and long-term infrastructure planning.
Table 5: Charger Cost for EV Charging Stations
| Types of Chargers | Cost |
| Bharat AC-001 | INR 65,000 |
| Type 2 AC | INR 1,20,000 |
| Bharat DC-001 | INR 2,47,000 |
| CHAdeMO | INR 13,50,000 |
| CCS | INR 14,00,000 |
Note: The cost might vary depending on the suppliers and their stocks.
Source: TATA AIG Insurance[77]
The financial viability of charging infrastructure is affected by a low utilisation rate, which currently averages at around 5 percent.[78] At this level, investors face extended payback periods, making it difficult to recover initial outlays. Market expectations, however, indicate that utilisation rates need to reach 10–12 percent for charging stations to break even within 4–5 years. Until this gap is bridged, attracting sustained investment for network expansion will remain a challenge. This underscores the need for targeted strategies to stimulate user demand and accelerate infrastructure ROI (return on investment).
While regulatory reforms have allowed individuals to set up charging stations without licenses and subsidies have supported EV purchases, leading to growth in EV adoption, the financial burden remains substantial. Addressing these challenges will require more than policy just measures; it will require more complimentary solutions as well as diverse, well-structured financing models that directly support each critical success factor.
India’s rollout of conductive EV charging continues to face challenges, ranging from high upfront costs and limited land availability to long charging times.[d] In this context, battery swapping presents a practical alternative, especially in a country where 2Ws and 3Ws account for over 85 percent of all vehicles.[79] Many battery swapping stations (BSS) are actively operating in the National Capital Region (NCR), with manufacturers like Honda, Vida, and Yulu establishing networks to serve commercial fleets. For example, Yulu’s Kalkaji market swapping station experiences steady user traffic, demonstrating on-ground demand. Battery swapping enables users to replace depleted batteries with fully charged ones in minutes, reducing downtime and boosting efficiency, especially for commercial fleets and last-mile delivery operators. Swapping stations also require less space, as batteries can be stacked and charged off-site.
While Battery-as-a-Service (BaaS) models further lower upfront EV costs, making EVs more accessible—as per the current experience in India—such as with MG Motors’ offering, indicates limited uptake due to infrastructure gaps and financing complexities. Internationally, China’s success with battery standardisation (e.g., CATL’s Choco- SEB battery swap standard) demonstrates how India could also ensure interoperability through coordinated action between government, industry, and regulators, without stifling innovation.[80],[81] However, swapping should not be seen as a substitute for conventional charging; rather, it complements the latter by bridging infrastructure gaps and accelerating adoption. Both solutions, however, require robust investment. Unlocking diverse financing models and engaging a broader set of actors is essential to scale infrastructure effectively, or else India risks continued fragmentation and sluggish progress in its EV transition.
Financing is the backbone of India’s EV infrastructure expansion. While technical readiness, land access, and grid integration are critical success factors for scaling EV infrastructure, none can be realised without adequate financing. Building a robust and reliable charging ecosystem demands substantial capital. Financing, therefore, is not a peripheral issue; rather, a core enabler that underpins all other elements of EV infrastructure. Without targeted financial models to de-risk investments, scale infrastructure, and ensure regional equity, India’s EV transition will remain fragmented and urban-centric.
In addition to public charging networks, captive charging infrastructure has emerged as a viable investment model, particularly for electric fleets. Companies in sectors like e-commerce, logistics, and corporate transport build private charging facilities for their vehicles. This ensures reliable energy access, lowers costs, and improves asset utilisation. Captive charging also reduces the risk of low usage and shortens payback periods. As a result, it supports faster electrification of fleets and is increasingly attractive to large-scale operators. However, this is not a panacea. External innovations that directly address many of the structural barriers discussed earlier are still needed to strengthen investor confidence and accelerate the deployment of accessible charging networks across the country. The following section explores these solutions.
PPPs have emerged as a cornerstone of EV charging infrastructure development in India, offering a scalable and financially viable approach by leveraging the strengths of both sectors.[82] With over 1.32 million charging stations needed by 2030, PPPs reduce fiscal burden on the government while incentivising investment through mechanisms like viability gap funding (VGF), land allotments, and revenue-sharing models.[83]
Several Indian states have demonstrated the success of this model. Delhi’s EV policy uses a service charge bidding mechanism, wherein private operators bid for the lowest rates in exchange for station management rights.[84] In Maharashtra, firms like Tata Power, Magenta Power, and Fortum India have partnered with urban local bodies (ULBs) to deploy public chargers, supported by land, subsidies, and streamlined clearances.[85] Notably, in 2023, a US$2.5 billion battery swapping infrastructure project between Gogoro and Belrise Industries, facilitated by the state government, highlights the potential of PPPs in scaling beyond traditional charging to emerging technologies.[86]
However, in India, the PPP landscape still faces challenges. Regulatory inconsistencies, lengthy approval processes, and coordination gaps among DISCOMs, land-owning bodies, and technology providers often deter private participation. To address this, governments must implement single-window clearance systems, define clear roles for each stakeholder, and introduce performance-linked incentives. To encourage rural and semi-urban rollout, blended financing models and direct subsidies for infrastructure (not just vehicles) will be essential. With these reforms, PPPs can serve as a foundational model to scale equitable EV infrastructure and support India’s broader decarbonisation goals.
Since the 2013 Companies Act mandates eligible firms to allocate at least 2 percent of their average net profits towards Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), India has unlocked a unique funding channel for social and environmental development. Recognising EV charging infrastructure as a valid CSR in 2021, the Ministry of Corporate Affairs aligned this effort with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) such as Climate Action (SDG 13) and Sustainable Cities (SDG 11).[87] With over INR 26,000 crore available annually through CSR funding, the potential to direct corporate capital toward India’s green mobility transition is substantial.[88]
However, the problem with CSR-driven charging ecosystems is that they are often not commercially viable, and using CSR funds to establish ‘commercial’ charging infrastructure can raise legal concerns. Consequently, several CSR-funded charging stations may remain underutilised or unutilised. A more effective use of CSR funds could be in driving EV ownership, such as corporates supporting employees or partners by subsidising portions of their vehicle loans.
Nonetheless, CSR funding can still play a strategic role in bridging infrastructure gaps, especially in underserved areas with limited private sector presence. Companies can install charging stations within office campuses, employee housing complexes, or nearby public spaces, where the primary benefit is social or environmental rather than commercial. CSR initiatives can also extend to training local communities in EV maintenance and awareness or subsidise EV purchases for vulnerable groups. For instance, Mercedes-Benz R&D India’s recent training centres for charging infrastructure show how companies are helping local communities gain EV skills through their CSR initiatives.[89] These interventions not only promote grassroots adoption but also enhance firms’ Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) scores, attracting sustainability-focused investors and consumers alike.[90]
Internationally, many European and Japanese corporations integrate EV infrastructure into their broader corporate sustainability strategies. For many, it is not just about convenience; it is part of a larger push to meet ESG goals and cut down on transport-related emissions. For instance, companies like IKEA and Starbucks have supported EV charging expansion on their premises as part of global climate commitments.[91],[92]
In India, some companies have begun setting important precedents. Oil India Limited installed an EV charging station in Noida under its CSR programme, and the DS Group announced plans for solar-powered EV charging stations in the Noida headquarters’ parking area.[93],[94] These examples signal a shift—if such firms can take the lead, others across sectors can follow suit.
That said, CSR fund distribution in India remains lopsided, with a bulk of it directed towards education, sanitation, and healthcare. Environment initiatives have consistently received less than 10 percent of total CSR funds.[95] This is largely due to long gestation periods, limited short-term returns, and the absence of strong monitoring and evaluation mechanisms. Moreover, such projects often demand specialised knowledge and collaboration with expert institutions, factors that also make EV infrastructure less appealing to companies. To unlock more corporate participation, the government must offer clear guidelines, recognition frameworks, and targeted incentives. With the right support, CSR funding can become a key driver of India’s EV ecosystem, especially in underserved areas, while advancing corporate climate leadership.
Community-driven funding models present a promising pathway and expand EV charging infrastructure in rural and underserved regions, where conventional public and private investments often fall short. By encouraging local communities, cooperatives and small businesses to co-fund and manage charging stations, this model fosters ownership, enhances sustainability, and ensures that infrastructure is tailored to local needs.
The UK’s Community Energy initiative illustrates the value of community involvement, having facilitated the installation of e-bike and EV charging points through locally raised community funds.[96] Similarly, India has its own precedents for this model. The rural telecom payphone network, the Gram Vikas water and sanitation initiative in Odisha, and Barefoot College’s Solar Microgrids in Rajasthan all demonstrate how infrastructure can be built through external funding but sustained through community engagement.[97] In Barefoot’s case, women trained as “solar mamas” managed microgrids, while households contributed small maintenance fees, ensuring long-term viability.[98]
A similar approach, when applied to the EV space, could see the government, CSR donors, or climate funds cover initial capital costs, with communities contributing to and managing day-to-day operations and upkeep in the long run. This would reduce long-term dependence on top-down funding models and ensure greater regional equity.
However, this model requires support systems. Rural communities may lack awareness of EV benefits, regulatory clarity, or the technical skills to operate charging infrastructure. Addressing these gaps will require structured training, regulatory guidance, and demonstration pilots. With the right capacity-building, community-led models could become a vital pillar of India’s EV expansion, bridging infrastructure gaps where traditional investment models may struggle to reach.
The P2P funding model offers a decentralised opportunity for expanding EV infrastructure, especially in underserved peri-urban and rural areas where formal infrastructure is scarce. By enabling individuals or small businesses to share their private charging stations with other EV users, the model reduces the need for new land, lowers infrastructure costs, monetises idle chargers and incentivises micro-entrepreneurship.
Globally, platforms like Share&Charge (Germany) and AmpUp (US) have created distributed networks by enabling private charger owners to rent out access to others, similar to how Airbnb leverages underused real estate. In India, however, the charging ecosystem is still dominated by centralised operators like Tata Power EZ Charge and Fortum Charge & Drive, which manage ownership, pricing, and service delivery, leaving limited room for true P2P participation. Emerging hybrid platforms such as PlugNgo and Bolt.Earth are beginning to bridge this gap by connecting private chargers to users, albeit with retained control over pricing and service protocols.
Under current regulations, EV charging is considered a service rather than a sale of electricity and thus does not require a license. However, official guidelines that explicitly promote and regulate charger sharing would help legitimise and accelerate P2P adoption. P2P acceleration is often hindered by the high upfront costs of chargers, diverse charging standards, and weak grid infrastructure in residential areas. Additionally, the absence of secure, interoperable and transparent payment systems further slows the adoption.
Therefore, to scale P2P models in India, government support through capital subsidies, low-interest financing, and tax rebates for home-based charger installations can encourage participation. Additionally, regulatory measures around safety, pricing transparency, technical interoperability, and integration with digital payment systems like UPI could further streamline transactions and build user trust.
While challenges remain, the P2P model aligns with India’s inclusive and decentralised clean energy ambitions. With the right policy push and platform innovation, it can unlock new charging capacity while fostering local entrepreneurship and accelerating EV adoption across geographies.
EV Green Bonds represent a powerful financing tool to accelerate investment in India’s electric mobility infrastructure.[99] Designed to support environmentally sustainable projects, these bonds can mobilise large-scale capital for developing EV charging networks, battery-swapping networks, and electric vehicle fleets in India. Both private players and public agencies can issue them to tap into the growing pool of climate-conscious investors, directly aligning infrastructure growth with India’s clean energy targets.
Globally, green bonds have proven to be an effective financing tool for clean mobility development. According to China’s 2023 sustainable debt report, the country has leveraged them extensively to fund its EV ecosystem, with energy and transport projects dominating the volume of its climate-aligned debt portfolio.[100],[101] Similarly, Sweden, an early adopter, began utilising green bonds in 2013 to expand electric public transport and private EV adoption.[102] These efforts have contributed to robust, well-integrated charging networks across both countries.
Green bonds are not new in India. Institutions like the Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA) raised US$300 million in 2017 to finance solar and wind energy projects, reflecting strong investor appetite for sustainable infrastructure projects in the country.[103] Issuing EV-specific green bonds would build on existing momentum, directing funds to high-impact areas such as fast-charging corridors, grid-integrated stations, and clean last-mile delivery solutions.[104]
While the practice of issuing EV green bonds is not yet widespread in India, examples from other countries suggest that it is a promising avenue that can be further developed. To scale this model, India will need a strong regulatory framework, clear project eligibility guidelines, and incentives for issuers. Aligning EV bonds with ESG-focused investment norms and offering tax benefits or guarantees can boost investor confidence.
With the right ecosystem in place, EV Green Bonds can become a cornerstone of India’s financing strategy, enabling cost-effective, large-scale infrastructure rollouts that are climate-aligned and future-ready.
This paper makes the following recommendations.
Standardise Charging Connectors: While CCS2 has become the de facto standard for 4Ws, officially adopting it as the national standard will ensure interoperability across PCS. Older Bharat DC-001 (GB/T) and CHAdeMO connectors remain widely installed, and are largely unusable as most new EVs support only CCS2. It is essential to upgrade or retrofit these legacy chargers to CCS2. For 2Ws and 3Ws, although the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has officially recognised a combined AC/DC charging standard, most manufacturers have yet to widely adopt it.[105] Proactive efforts are needed to promote this standard to prevent further fragmentation. This transition should be guided by industry consultations, supported by financial incentives for retrofitting, and include phased compliance targets for OEMs and CPOs.
Integrate Charging Infrastructure into Grid Planning: Make EV charging a core part of state DISCOM infrastructure plans. Use smart charging solutions to manage peak loads and offer performance-linked incentives for utilities that facilitate EV integration.
Enhance Grid Responsiveness for EV Charging: Prioritise faster-response energy sources (solar, wind, gas) for high-demand charging zones. Phase down reliance on coal-heavy supply to ensure grid flexibility and safety during demand surges.
Streamline Land and Approval Processes: Establish a single-window system for land allocation and electricity connection clearances. Set fixed approval timelines and create dedicated coordination cells involving DISCOMs, ULBs, and CPOs.
Facilitate Co-location in Strategic Zones: Enable co-location of EV charging with renewable generation in highway corridors, truck depots, and off-grid rural hubs where land is already allocated for energy infrastructure. This reduces costs, supports energy security, and avoids duplication.
Expand Highway Charging Infrastructure: Prioritise the development of fast and reliable charging stations along national and state highways. Establish clear guidelines for station placement at regular intervals, ensure compatibility with all major EV types, and coordinate with highway authorities for land, utilities, and signage. Dedicated incentives and PPPs can accelerate rollout, supporting both intercity passenger movement and long-haul freight electrification.
Expand Local EV Charging Through Smarter Urban Design: Enable a dense and accessible EV charging network by strategically deploying low- and mid-power chargers across urban areas, including residential complexes, office parks, parking lots, high-footfall public spaces, and underused surface lots and garages. Mandate EV-readiness in building codes for all new constructions and provide targeted incentives for retrofitting existing buildings with basic charging infrastructure. For example, EV chargers can be integrated into public infrastructure such as streetlights and bollards.
Support Battery Swapping: Scale battery swapping in logistics-heavy corridors and urban centres by enabling deployment at fuel stations and public depots. Focus on standardisation, interoperability, and safety compliance across operators.
Improve Data Transparency and Access: Mandate regular, real-time data sharing on public charging points through a centralised digital platform. Standardise reporting formats across CPOs and ensure open access for researchers, investors, planners, and end users.
Enhance Training and Capacity Building: Develop dedicated training programmes and partner with Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs) to deliver structured training for CPOs. This will help maintain operational standards, improve service reliability, and create skilled jobs as the charging infrastructure expands.
India stands at a crucial turning point in its transition to sustainable mobility, with EV adoption being key to its energy security and climate goals. While the country has made strides, a lack of reliable charging infrastructure remains a roadblock that risks slowing progress and widening regional disparities. Bridging this gap will require both financial investments as well as coordinated action among policymakers, private players, and local communities. Standardised charging protocols, grid integration, and inclusive infrastructure planning, particularly in rural and underserved areas, are critical to building public confidence and long-term viability.
To truly align with India’s goal of achieving 50 percent non-fossil fuel energy capacity by 2030, integrating renewable energy in EV charging is crucial. While EVs reduce tailpipe emissions, their impact is limited by India’s coal-heavy electricity grid. Leveraging abundant solar and wind resources, especially for off-grid or rural areas, will offer both lower emissions and reduced costs.
The road ahead for India’s transition to a sustainable EV ecosystem is complex but promising. With the right policy push, financing innovation, and stakeholder collaboration, the country can build an accessible, resilient, and environmentally conscious EV ecosystem.
Manini is Research Assistant, Centre for Economy and Growth, ORF.
All views expressed in this publication are solely those of the author, and do not represent the Observer Research Foundation, either in its entirety or its officials and personnel.
[a] This paper focuses on EVs, rather than hybrids, because only full battery electric vehicles require dedicated charging infrastructure and are central to India’s long-term climate and energy targets.
[b] ‘Range anxiety’ is a term used to describe the concern that an EV may not have sufficient battery charge to reach its destination or a nearby charging point.
[c] Bharat AC-001: Indian standard AC charger (up to 15A), basic slow proprietary charger.
Bharat DC-001: Indian DC moderate charger, faster than AC chargers.
Type 1: Single-phase AC charging connector, mostly supports slower and Level 1 or Level 2 charging
Type 2: European AC charging standard, supports both single-phase and three-phase charging, faster charging than Bharat AC, more efficient.
CHAdeMO (Charge De Move): Japanese DC fast charging standard, mainly compatible with Japanese EVs like Nissan Leaf.
CCS (Combined Charging System): Global DC fast charging standard that combines AC and DC in one port, supports ultra- fast charging, used in premium EVs like Tata Motors, Hyundai Motors, Mahindra & Mahindra, JSW MG Motors and other global brands.
[d] Conductive charging directly transfers electricity to the vehicle from a charging station, while battery swapping replaces depleted batteries with charged ones at designated stations.
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Manini is a Research Assistant at the Centre for Economy and Growth, ORF New Delhi. Her research focuses on the intersection of geopolitics with international ...
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