-
CENTRES
Progammes & Centres
Location
PDF Download 
Prateek Tripathi and Kartik Bommakanti, “Air Defence Mechanisms: A Primer on India and Pakistan,” ORF Issue Brief No. 809, May 2025, Observer Research Foundation.
Introduction
India’s launch of “Operation Sindoor” on 6-7 May 2025, in response to the killing of 26 civilians in Pahalgam on 22 April by Pakistan-sponsored terrorists, marked a watershed moment in India-Pakistan relations. The operation, and Pakistan’s response to it, was primarily an air and air-defence war between the two nuclear-armed neighbours. The succession of events underscored the importance of air defence in protecting static installations, mobile platforms, weapons systems, troop concentrations, and civilian infrastructure from airborne and air-to-surface threats.
India has a multi-tiered air defence system comprising imported, jointly developed, and indigenous systems covering long-, intermediate-, and short-range interception. Pakistan too, is working to acquire a multilayered air defence system, but it is still nascent relative to India, as “Operation Sindoor” demonstrated. Pakistan’s current air defences are mostly of Chinese origin. However, the recent military clash is likely to catalyse Rawalpindi’s investment in air defence capabilities through a combination of Chinese and Turkish assistance, domestic development, and—more remotely—European supplies.
India’s Air Defence System
The Indian Ballistic Missile Defence (BMD) programme began in 1995 after Pakistan’s acquisition of M-11 missiles from China.[1] It gained momentum after Pakistan’s nuclear tests in 1998 and the Kargil War in 1999. The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) completed Phase I in April 2019, and Phase II is underway. Phase I entails endo-atmospheric interception designed to counter Pakistani ballistic missile threats, whereas Phase II focuses on exo-atmospheric interception to defend against Chinese missiles.
India’s BMD is a two-tiered system capable of intercepting any incoming ballistic missile with a range of up to 2,000 km (and up to 5,000-km in Phase II).[2] For high-altitude interception, India started developing the Prithvi Air Defence (PAD) system in the 1990s which was completed and tested in 2006.[3] PAD can, in principle, intercept incoming ballistic missiles with a range of up to 2,000 km, at altitudes of up to 80 km, and at speeds of Mach 5. The second tier, the Advanced Air Defence (AAD) system—also successfully tested in 2006[4]—covers lower-altitude threats up to 30 km. India has strategically deployed PAD and AAD interceptors to cover important cities like Delhi and Mumbai, along with nuclear and space installations.
As part of Phase II of its BMD programme, India is developing the Prithvi Defence Vehicle (PDV), which was tested in 2017 and can intercept exo-atmospheric targets at altitudes of up to 100 km.[5]
Figure 1: India’s Multi-Layered Counter Drone and Air Defence Grid
Source: Ministry Of Defence[6]
S–400
The S-400 Triumph surface-to-air missile (SAM) system, developed by Russia’s Almaz Central Design Bureau, entered service in April 2007.[7] India signed a US$5.4-billion deal in 2016 to purchase five S-400 systems.[8] Regarded as one of the world's most advanced long-range air defence systems, the S-400 integrates a multifunction radar, autonomous detection and targeting systems, anti-aircraft missile systems, launchers, and a command-and-control centre.[9] It employs four types of missiles: short-range 9M96E (40 km), medium-range 9M96E2 (120 km), long-range 48N6DM (250 km), and the very long-range 40N6 (400 km)—thus creating a layered defence.[10] The system can engage all types of aerial targets, including aircraft, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), and ballistic and cruise missiles, within a range of up to 400 km at an altitude of up to 30 km. The S-400 can be deployed within five minutes and simultaneously track and engage up to 36 targets.[11] It can also be integrated into the existing and future air defence units of the Indian Air Force, Army, and Navy.
Starting in 2021, India has received three S-400 regiments from Russia, with two more scheduled for delivery in 2026.[12] Rechristened as the S-400 Sudarshan Chakra, it currently constitutes India’s singular long-range air defence system.
Barak–8
The Barak-8 missile defence system has two versions: the naval-based Long-Range Surface-to-Air Missile (LRSAM) system with a range of up to 100 km and the Medium-Range Surface-to-Air Missile (MRSAM) system with a range of up to 70 km, now inducted across the Indian Army, Navy, and Air Force.[13] Co-developed by DRDO and Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI) under an intergovernmental agreement between India and Israel, the system also involves Indian public and private sector entities, including MSMEs. The sale of the missile system to India was made in 2017 and has been undergoing numerous trials since, with the final tests being conducted on 4 April 2025.[14] The MRSAM system provides point and area air defence against a wide range of threats, including aircraft, UAVs, munitions, and cruise missiles.
Akash
The Akash is a short-range, mobile SAM system indigenously developed by the DRDO. While development of the system began in 1983, it was formally inducted into the Indian Army and Air Force in 2015 following several test firings.[15] It has an interception range of 30–35 km and can engage targets at altitudes of up to 18 km. The system can engage multiple air targets, including aircraft, UAVs, and cruise missiles, while operating in a fully autonomous mode. In 2016, the Government of India approved the development of the Akash Next Generation (Akash NG) system with an extended range of up to 70 km. Akash NG was successfully tested in 2021 and 2024.[16]
SPYDER
The Surface-to-Air Python and Derby (SPYDER) is a low-level, quick-reaction SAM system developed by Rafael Advanced Defense Systems and the MBT Missile Division and Elta Radar Division of the IAI.[17] SPYDER is capable of engaging aircraft, helicopters, UAVs, and precision-guided munitions. It provides air defence for fixed assets, as well as point and area defence for mobile forces in combat areas. The SPYDER launcher is designed to fire two types of interceptor missiles: the Python-5 and Derby.
The SPYDER system has two variants: the SPYDER-SR (short-range) has a range of up to 15 km and can engage at altitudes between 20 m to 9,000 m.[18] It carries four missiles, offers 360° engagement capability, and can launch missiles within five seconds of target confirmation. The system is capable of multi-target simultaneous engagement along with single, multiple, and ripple firing, by day and night and in all weather conditions. The SPYDER-MR (medium-range) has a range of up to 35 km and can engage at altitudes between 16 km and 20 km.[19] It carries eight missiles and features the advanced IAI/Elta MF-STAR surveillance radar. India purchased 18 SPYDER-MR systems in 2009 alongside 750 Python-5 and Derby missiles each.[20] The system was used to shoot down a Pakistani surveillance drone following the 2019 Balakot airstrike.[21]
In addition to the above systems, India also possesses legacy Soviet short-range air defence systems such as the S-125 Pechora, 9K33 Osa-AK, and 2K12 Kub/Kvadrat.[22] DRDO is developing the Quick Reaction Surface-to-Air Missile System (QRSAM) with a range of 25-30 km, which is expected to be integrated soon into India’s air defence systems.[23]
India possesses very short-range air defence systems with a range less than 10 km, primarily to protect infantry and tank regiments from enemy aircraft. These systems also have utility against UAVs. Most are legacy Soviet and Russian missile and gun systems, such as the 2K22 Tunguska, L-70 anti-aircraft gun, and ZSU-23-4 Shilka.[24] India has also procured Russian man-portable air defence systems (MANPADS), including the Igla-M and its more advanced successor, the Igla-S, with a new batch procured by the Indian Army in April 2024.[25] The DRDO is developing an indigenous Very Short-Range Air Defence System (VSHORADS).
The BMD network’s Mission Control Centre (MCC) constantly monitors Indian airspace via a network of Long-Range Tracking Radars (LRTRs) with a range of over 500 km, which are used to identify and track threats at extreme ranges. These comprise two EL/M-2080 Green Pine radars, built by the IAI and exported to India in the early 2000s, and two more built under licence in India, known as “Swordfish”. These are active electronically scanned array (AESA) LRTRs with an initial range of 600 km,[26] reportedly extended to 1,500 km.[27] The MCC also receives early-warning data from the Indian Air Force (IAF) and the National Technical Research Organization’s ELM-2090 Terra systems (also procured from Israel), which conduct very long-range search and detection, as well as from the IAF’s Airborne Early Warning and Control System (AEW&C).[28]
The Netra AEW&C, developed by the DRDO, is a “force multiplier system of systems” for detecting and tracking enemy/hostile aircraft and UAVs.[29] It has 240-degree radar coverage with a range of up to 200 km.[a] India also operates three Israeli IL-76-based Phalcon Airborne Warning and Control Systems (AWACS) which have 360-degree radar coverage and a range of over 400 km.[30]
Airspace monitoring is coordinated and complemented by the IAF’s Integrated Air Command and Control System (IACCS) and the Indian Army’s Akashteer system. IACCS is an automated air defence command-and-control centre for the controlling and monitoring of air operations by the IAF.[31] It serves as the nerve centre for airspace management and weapons control. At present, nine IACCS nodes are operational, covering the entire Indian airspace.[32] Most of the IAF radars are integrated with the IACCS, along with civilian radars and AWACS. The radar inputs are analysed and fused to provide a composite air picture, which is shared with weapon control centres.
Akashteer is an air defence control and reporting system developed by Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL) for the Indian Army as part of an INR 2,000-crore contract signed between BEL and the Ministry of Defence in March 2023.[33] It seamlessly integrates radar and communication data for real-time airspace monitoring and enhanced decision-making. The system automates air defence operations, reducing manual input and ensuring faster responses during critical operations. It is vehicle-based, which allows greater mobility and flexibility against airborne targets. By September 2024, BEL had delivered over 100 Akashteer systems.[34]
The Indian Army and IAF are currently working on the integration of Akashteer with the IACCS, with one site having successfully achieved it as of January 2025.[35]
Pakistan’s Air Defence System
Pakistan has a multilayered Air Defence (AD) capability, comprising Chinese and some Western systems,[36] alongside a growing domestic AD industry.[37] All three branches—the Pakistan Army (PA), Pakistan Air Force (PAF), and Pakistan Navy (PN)—are equipped with a variety of air defence platforms. However, historically, Pakistan’s AD posture has been geared more towards base defence and not territorial defence,[38] with the latter largely managed by PAF’s air combat fighters.[39] This remains true to some extent, as evidenced by India’s launch of “Operation Sindoor”, which revealed the chinks in the AD capabilities, especially of the PAF. India was able to strike 11 different PAF air bases with precision, partially or completely eliminating radar installations, weapons storage facilities, and runways.
Prior to “Operation Sindoor”, Pakistan faced a trade-off between investing in offensive platforms—such as drones and multiple rocket launch systems—and defensive systems like air and missile defence. They veered towards the acquisition of combat drones and multiple rocket launch systems.[40] Historically, Pakistan has invested in capabilities for combat aircraft and submarines, causing its AD capabilities to languish.[41] The other factor being cost and supplier resistance to helping Pakistan with its AD problem.[42] Russian and American AD systems were inaccessible to Rawalpindi due to export restrictions, while European systems were too expensive.[43] Despite the poor performance of China-origin AD systems during “Operation Sindoor”, Pakistan is likely to invest in AD capabilities in cooperation with both China and other potential suppliers from Europe and Turkey.
The PA operates the China-origin SA-2 medium-range SAM that travels at Mach 3.5 with a 60 Km. Another AD system in service with the PA is the French-developed Crotale SAM, with a speed of Mach 2.3 and a range of up to 11 km,[44] launched from a wheeled ground platform.[45] A third is the Anza I, II, and III variants of the shoulder-fired Man-Portable Air Defence System (MANPADS) developed by Pakistan’s Khan Research Laboratory (KRL) with assistance from China.[46] These primarily target aircraft.
Anza-I is produced domestically and is[47] based on the Russian SA-7 Grail.[48] The Anza-II is a more advanced variant of the same MANPAD and derived from the Chinese QW-1 MANPADS.[49] An even more advanced variant is the Anza-III, which is customised to meet the PA’s needs and includes a firing unit like the Russian Igla 9K38 Igla MANPAD.[50] The three variants differ in guidance capabilities: Anza-I uses an uncooled passive infrared (IR) that detects the movement of objects; Anza-II has a cooled IR seeker allowing it to detect movement more effectively by improving the noise-to-detection ratio; Anza-III, which is the most advanced of the three variants and derivatives of the QW-2, has a dual-band passive IR seeker[51] that resists heat flares and solar background heat, and enhances target tracking.[52]
Beyond these very short-range AD systems, the PA operates the FM-90, which is a derivative of the HongQi-7 (HQ-7), a short-range air defence system developed by the People’s Republic of China (PRC).[53] HQ-7 is itself a reverse-engineered version of the French-origin Thomson-CSF Crotale system.[54] Its most advanced version–the HQ-7B, is the FM-90 mounted on a 6x6 armoured chassis (Chinese variant) or a TELAR vehicle (Pakistani variant) integrated with four missiles.[55] It has a range of up to 15 km.
The HQ16A, also known as LY-80, is a China-made medium-range SAM (MRSAM) system operated by the PA, acquired during the 2010s.[56] This AD system was first introduced by the Chinese military in September 2011. Developed by China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation (CASC), it uses cutting-edge technologies such as a phased array radar, intermittent illumination semi-active radar homing guidance, vertical cold launch, and a radio communication network. The LY-80 MRSAM is capable of operating effectively in all weather conditions, even with dense electromagnetic interference.[57] The HQ16A design is derived from the Russian-origin Buk-1 (SA-11 ‘Gadfly’) and Buk-2 (SA-17 ‘Grizzly’).[58] It can engage high-altitude targets, while its medium-range capability can engage lower-altitude targets at a distance of 40 km, bridging the void between its short-range and long-range air defence forces.[59]
All of the PA’s air defence systems, covering the LY-80 medium-range SAMs, FM-90 short-range SAMs, and HQ-9/P long-range SAMs, are part of the PA’s “Comprehensive Layered Integrated Air Defence” (CLIAD) system.[60]
Figure 2: Pakistan’s Comprehensive Layered Integrated Air Defence (CLIAD) Architecture
Source: Global Defense News[61]
The PAF’s air defences have evolved from their earlier reliance on ground-based air defences before the 1970s. Recognising the importance of AD capabilities, the PAF moved to create an Air Defence Command (ADC) in 1975.[62] Since then, the PAF has acquired several systems, including the French Mistral very Short-Range Air Defence (VSHORAD) system, which can be used from ground vehicles and helicopters.[63] Variants of the Mistral are most likely operated by the PA as well. However, it is unclear whether the PAF and PA air defence systems are fully integrated.[64]
The recent crisis between India and Pakistan, where air defences played an important role, may eventually reveal the level of integration or non-integration between PAF and PA air defences. As of now, there is a lack of clarity on whether “Operation Sindoor” fully or demonstrably exposed the gaps between the PAF’s and the PA’s air defence systems. Nevertheless, based on anecdotal evidence and preliminary assessments, India’s successful penetration of Pakistani air defences and the range of PAF air base targets struck by the IAF[65] at least partially confirm the absence of integration of AD systems between the PAF and PA.
The PN has come a long way in terms of building up its AD capabilities. Like the PA, the PN’s experience with AD development evolved over many years from a limited and constrained initiative. The PN aspires to a multilayered AD capability similar to the PA’s, though much of this remains in the realm of ambition and intent rather than fully realised capacity. The PN has likely integrated the LY-80N, the export variant of the HQ-16 ship-to-air- missile (ShAM), which is primarily a medium-range ShAM.[66] There is uncertainty whether the PN fields the 40 km variant of the LY-80N or the more advanced 70 km variant.[67]
The LY-80N is launched from a vertical launch system (VLS) integrated into the Chinese-built[68] Type 054A/P Tughril-class frigates (the PN variant of the People’s Liberation Army Navy’s Type 054A).[69] The PN has four of these multi-mission frigates, including the Tughril, that field the LY-80N.[70] However, the PN’s LY-80Ns share some of the limitations of the PA’s MRSAMs, with their parallel capability to engage multiple incoming hostile targets confined to the illumination of radars integrated on the vessel.[71] Thus, the Tughril-class frigates are highly “vulnerable to saturation attacks and multiple airborne threats”.[72] Following “Operation Sindoor”, the PN, as will be the case with the PAF and PA, is likely to address the deficiencies the service faces with their shipboard AD systems.
Conclusion
The latest crisis between India and Pakistan appears to have served as a testing ground for China-sourced AD systems.[73] Their poor performance will compel China to improve their systems, leading to the supply of more advanced and improved AD capabilities to Pakistan. Pakistan’s indigenous efforts to build AD systems are likely to accelerate with resources being poured into the air defence programmes of all three of Pakistan’s armed services.
Türkiye is most likely going to deepen cooperation with Pakistan, and it is possible that some European countries may also extend assistance to Rawalpindi. These more advanced capabilities will also witness deployment by China against India along the Sino-Indian boundary and the Tibetan Autonomous Region (TAR). Although Pakistan’s air defence system might not be as extensive as India’s, it is bound to improve, especially following the inadequate performance of its air defences during the Indian Air Force (IAF) missile assault.
Endnotes
[a] In addition to providing information to the ground, it can receive information from ground, integrate and fuse them onboard to provide the operators onboard a composite picture of the environment.
[1] Air Marshal Daljit Singh, “C4ISR Architecture For an Integrated Air Defence And BMD-Necessity And Feasibility,” Centre For Joint Warfare Studies, October 2022, https://cenjows.in/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/7-C4ISR-Architecture-for-An-Integrated-AD-BMD-by-Air-Mshl-Daljit-Singh-Retd.pdf
[2] Singh, “C4ISR Architecture for an Integrated Air Defence and BMD-Necessity and Feasibility”
[3] Snehesh Alex Philip, “India Completes Phase one of Ballistic Missile Defence Programme, Nod for Missiles Awaited,” The Print, April 22, 2019, https://theprint.in/defence/india-completes-phase-one-of-ballistic-missile-defence-programme-nod-for-missiles-awaited/224959/
[4] Philip, “India Completes Phase One of Ballistic Missile Defence Programme, Nod for Missiles Awaited”
[5] “India Tests Nuclear Interceptor Missile,” The Economic Times, February 12, 2017, https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/science/india-tests-nuclear-interceptor-missile/articleshow/57109470.cms
[6] Ministry of Defence, Government of India, May 13, 2025, https://x.com/MIB_India/status/1922013622907081079
[7] “S-400 Triumph Air Defence Missile System,” Army Technology, February 3, 2020, https://www.army-technology.com/projects/s-400-triumph-air-defence-missile-system/?cf-view
[8] Franz-Stephan Gady, “India and Russia Ink S-400 Missile Air Defense System Deal,” The Diplomat, October 20, 2016, https://thediplomat.com/2016/10/india-and-russia-ink-s-400-missile-air-defense-system-deal/
[9] “S-400 Triumph Air Defence Missile System”
[10] “S-400 Triumph Air Defence Missile System”
[11] “S-400 Triumph Air Defence Missile System”
[12] “Russia to Deliver Remaining 2 S-400 Air Defence Missiles to India by Q3 of 2026,” Business Today, March 21, 2024, https://www.businesstoday.in/india/story/russia-to-deliver-remaining-2-s-400-air-defence-missiles-to-india-by-q3-of-2026-sources-422331-2024-03-21
[13] “BARAK-8 – Advanced Air & Missile Defence System,” SP’s Naval Forces, March 2022, https://www.spsnavalforces.com/story/?id=811&h=BARAK-8-Advanced-Air-and-Missile-Defence-System
[14] Emanuel Fabian, “Indian Army Completes Final Tests for Israeli-made Barak 8 Missile Defense System, Ready to be Operational,” The Times Of Israel, April 7, 2025, https://www.timesofisrael.com/liveblog_entry/indian-army-completes-final-tests-for-israeli-made-barak-8-missile-defense-system-ready-to-be-operational/
[15] “Akash Surface-to-Air Missile (SAM) System,” Airforce Technology, March 12, 2024, https://www.airforce-technology.com/projects/akash-surface-to-air-missile-system/?cf-view&cf-closed
[16] “Akash Surface-to-Air Missile (SAM) System”
[17] “SPYDER Surface-to-Air Launcher for Python 5 and Derby Missiles,” Army Technology, January 26, 2024, https://www.army-technology.com/projects/spyder/
[18] “SPYDER Surface-to-Air Launcher for Python 5 and Derby Missiles.”
[19] “SPYDER Surface-to-Air Launcher for Python 5 and Derby Missiles.”
[20] Sakshi Tiwari, “Puncturing Tactical Ballistic Missiles, SPYDER Defense System Operated by India & Israel to Get an Upgrade?,” Eurasian Times, January 6, 2023, https://www.eurasiantimes.com/puncturing-tactical-ballistic-missiles-spyder-defense-system/
[21] Ami Rojkes Dombi, “Reports: India Used SPYDER System to Shoot Down Pakistani Drone,” Israel Defense, February 27, 2019, https://www.israeldefense.co.il/en/node/37638
[22] Lt General Naresh Chand, “Army Air Defence — An Update,” SP’s Naval Forces, January 2017, https://www.spslandforces.com/story/?id=438
[23] Ashu Maan, “Indian Army Boosts Air Defence With Indigenous Missiles: MRSAM Operational QRSAM Near Deployment,” Centre For Land Warfare Studies, April 10, 2025, https://claws.co.in/indian-army-boosts-air-defence-with-indigenous-missiles-mrsam-operational-qrsam-near-deployment-2/
[24] Chand, “Army Air Defence — An Update”
[25] Smruti Deshpande, “Complex Network of India’s Existing Air Defence Capabilities & the Way Forward,” The Print, May 2, 2024, https://theprint.in/defence/complex-network-of-indias-existing-air-defence-capabilities-the-way-forward/2065704/
[26] “Swordfish L-band Radar Long Range Tracking Radar (LRTR),” Global Security, March 2021, https://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/india/swordfish.htm
[27] Vijainder K Thakur, “Matching THAAD’s Capability, India’s Phase 2 Missile Defense Program Gets CCS Nod For New Test Range,” The Eurasian Times, October 14, 2024, https://www.eurasiantimes.com/matching-thaads-capability-indias-phase/
[28] Singh, “C4ISR Architecture for an Integrated Air Defence and BMD-Necessity and Feasibility.”
[29] “Airborne Early Warning & Control System (AEW&C),” DRDO, https://www.drdo.gov.in/drdo/airborne-early-warning-and-control-aewc.
[30] Wing Commander Swaim Prakash Singh, “Prioritisation of AWACS for the IAF,” Centre For Air Power Studies, August 31, 2022, https://capsindia.org/prioritisation-of-awacs-for-the-iaf/
[31] Singh, “C4ISR Architecture for an Integrated Air Defence and BMD-Necessity and Feasibility.”
[32] Singh, “C4ISR Architecture for an Integrated Air Defence and BMD-Necessity and Feasibility.”
[33] Huma Siddiqui, “India’s Air Defence Strengthens with Akashteer Systems for the Army,” Financial Express, October 3, 2024, https://www.financialexpress.com/business/defence-indias-air-defence-strengthens-with-akashteer-systems-for-the-army-3629848/
[34] Siddiqui, “India’s Air Defence Strengthens with Akashteer Systems for the Army”
[35] Lt Gen PC Katoch, “The Akashteer-IACCS Combo,” SP’s Land Forces, January 27, 2025, https://www.spslandforces.com/experts-speak/?id=1230&h=The-Akashteer-IACCS-Combo
[36] Bilal Khan, “Report: Pakistan’s Air Defence Systems,” QUWA, November 1, 2024, https://quwa.org/pakistan/pakistan-air-defence-system/
[37] Khan, “Report: Pakistan’s Air Defence Systems.”
[38] Khan, “Report: Pakistan’s Air Defence Systems.”
[39] Khan, “Report: Pakistan’s Air Defence Systems.”
[40] Usman Ansari, “Pakistan unveils aircraft and rocket programs, parades military tech,” Defense News, March 27, 2024, https://www.defensenews.com/global/asia-pacific/2024/03/27/pakistan-unveils-aircraft-and-rocket-programs-parades-military-tech/
[41] Khan, “Report: Pakistan’s Air Defence Systems”.
[42] Khan, “Report: Pakistan’s Air Defence Systems”.
[43] Khan, “Report: Pakistan’s Air Defence Systems”.
[44] “Pakistani, Surface to Air Missile,” Internet Archive, https://web.archive.org/web/20070703061831/http://www.pakistanidefence.com/PakAirForce/SAM.html
[45] “Pakistani, Surface to Air Missile.”
[46] “Pakistani, Surface to Air Missile.”
[47] “Anza Mk-1, II, III,” Armyrecognition.com, https://armyrecognition.com/military-products/army/air-defense-systems/man-portable-air-defense-systems/anza-mk-i-mk-ii-mk-iii-pakistan-uk
[48] “Anza Mk-1, II, III.”
[49] “Anza Mk-1, II, III.”
[50] Anza Mk-1, II, III.”
[51] “QW-2 Chinese Man-Portable Infrared Homing Guided Surface to Air Missile,” Data Integration Network, TRADOC, http://52.147.194.24/WEG/Asset/QW-2_Chinese_Man-Portable_Infrared_Homing_Guided_Surface-to-Air_Missile
[52] “QW-2 Chinese Man-Portable Infrared Homing Guided Surface to Air Missile.”
[53] “HQ-9B (FM-90) Chinese 6x6 Short Range Air Defence Missile System,” OE-Data Integration Network (ODIN), TRADOC, https://odin.tradoc.army.mil/WEG/Asset/HQ-7B_(FM-90)_Chinese_6x6_Short-Range_Air_Defense_Missile_System
[54] “HQ-9B (FM-90) Chinese 6x6 Short Range Air Defence Missile System”.
[55] “HQ-7 (FM-90),” tank-afv.com, https://tank-afv.com/modern/China/HQ-7B_FM-90.php
[56] “The Growth of Pakistan’s Air Defence Environment,” Quwa, May 8, 2022, https://quwa.org/quwa-premium-excerpt/the-growth-of-pakistans-air-defence-environment-2/
[57] “GQ-16 LY-80 SAM,” armyrecognition.com, May 9, 2025, https://armyrecognition.com/military-products/army/air-defense-systems/air-defense-vehicles/hq-16a-china-uk
[58] “GQ-16 LY-80 SAM.”
[59] “GQ-16 LY-80 SAM.”
[60] Khan, “Report: Pakistan’s Air Defence Systems.”
[61] “Pakistan Leverages Its Alliance With China to Counter India’s Air Power,” Global Defense News, April 29, 2025, https://armyrecognition.com/focus-analysis-conflicts/army/analysis-defense-and-security-industry/pakistan-leverages-its-alliance-with-china-to-counter-indias-air-power
[62] Khan, “Report: Pakistan’s Air Defence Systems.”
[63] Khan, “Report: Pakistan’s Air Defence Systems.”
[64] Girish Linganna, “Balancing Fiscal Realities and Technological Imperatives: Pakistan’s Air Defence Ambition,” Raksha-Anirveda, March 31, 2024, https://raksha-anirveda.com/pakistans-air-defence-ambition-fiscal-reality-tech/
[65] Imogen Piper, Evan Hill, Maham Javaid and Rick Noack, “Indian Strikes on Pakistan Damaged Six Airfields, Post Analysis Finds,” The Washington Post, May 14, 2025, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2025/05/14/india-pakistan-strikes-conflict-damage/
[66] “Alit From China Unveils LY-80N Naval Surface-to-Air Missile Weapon System,” armyrecognition.com, July 19, 2021, https://armyrecognition.com/news/navy-news/2021/alit-from-china-unveils-ly-80n-surface-to-air-missile-weapon-system
[67] “Pakistan Navy Tughril-Class (Type 054A/P) Multi Mission Frigate,” Quwa, December 14, 2024, https://quwa.org/pakistan/pakistan-navy/ships/pakistan-navy-ships-type-054a-p-frigate/
[68] “Alit from China unveils LY-80N naval surface-to-air Missile Weapon System”.
[69] “Pakistan Navy Tughril-Class (Type 054A/P) Multi Mission Frigate.”
[70] “Pakistan Navy Tughril-Class (Type 054A/P) Multi Mission Frigate.”
[71] “Pakistan Navy Tughril-Class (Type 054A/P) Multi Mission Frigate.”
[72] “Pakistan Navy Tughril-Class (Type 054A/P) Multi Mission Frigate.”
[73] Shaheer Ahmed, “India-Pakistan Military Crisis: A Testing Ground for Chinese Military Hardware,” The Diplomat, May 13, 2025, https://thediplomat.com/2025/05/india-pakistan-military-crisis-a-testing-ground-for-chinese-military-hardware/
The views expressed above belong to the author(s). ORF research and analyses now available on Telegram! Click here to access our curated content — blogs, longforms and interviews.
Prateek Tripathi is a Junior Fellow at the Centre for Security, Strategy and Technology. His work focuses on emerging technologies and deep tech including quantum technology ...
Read More +
Kartik Bommakanti is a Senior Fellow with the Strategic Studies Programme. Kartik specialises in space military issues and his research is primarily centred on the ...
Read More +.jpg)
.jpg)
PREV