India’s rapid urbanisation and modernisation are eroding Gandhian ideals, widening the gap between moral philosophy and contemporary social reality
It has been almost eight decades since India’s independence. In this period, momentous changes have taken place, technological revolutions have drawn the world closer, and information now flows almost instantaneously. How people live around the world, the roles they perform, the practices that gain broad acceptance, and prevailing trends increasingly reflect a shared global culture. Urbanisation has been a key driver of this transition. Cities inherently are cultural and conceptual melting pots. This process has had a profound impact on India and its citizens, making today’s Indians almost unrecognisable when compared to those in 1947. This transformation has also significantly eroded many traditional and Gandhian ideals. While the majority of Indians continue to hold Mahatma Gandhi in high esteem and sincerely acknowledge his contributions to India’s freedom, a substantial section appears to be increasingly moving away from several of his core precepts.
From Gandhian Abstinence to Growing Alcohol Markets Gandhi strongly opposed alcohol consumption and did not favour any policy that encouraged drinking, which he described as an “invention of the devil.” He further wrote that drinking destroys the soul of a man and turns him into a beast. “If I were appointed dictator for one hour for all of India, the first thing I would do would be to close without compensation all the liquor shops, destroy all the toddy,” he stated.
While the majority of Indians continue to hold Mahatma Gandhi in high esteem and sincerely acknowledge his contributions to India’s freedom, a substantial section appears to be increasingly moving away from several of his core precepts.
Despite a long history of alcohol consumption and brewing in India, dating back to the Vedas, it may be inferred that at independence, India’s per capita consumption of alcohol was very low. Culturally, alcohol carried social disapproval except within small, elite, westernised circles. Gandhi’s opposition to alcohol was one of the primary reasons that the Indian Constitution incorporated prohibition within the Directive Principles of State Policy. Article 47 in the Constitution states that “the State shall endeavour to bring about the prohibition of the consumption except for medicinal purposes of intoxicating drinks and drugs which are injurious to health.”
After Independence, several states experimented with prohibition, including Haryana, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Manipur. However, none proved successful. Instead, the sale and consumption of alcohol flourished in the black market. Most states eventually abandoned the policy, and wherever prohibition persisted, liquor remained clandestinely available in whatever quantities were sought. A recent example is Bihar, where the outcomes have been no different.
Over the years, India’s per capita consumption has been rising. World Health Organization (WHO) figures indicate that per capita consumption has crossed the four-litre mark. Whiskies from India today account for 48 percent of global whisky consumption. About 14.6 percent of adults consume alcohol, with acceptance rising even among women. Overall, Gandhi’s call for abstinence from liquor appears to be receiving diminishing support at both the social and political levels. Given these trends, one may conclude that in the years ahead, the Gandhian precept risks being quietly set aside.
Gandhi steadfastly supported his concept of Gram Swaraj throughout his life. He advocated economic and moral self-sufficiency at the village level. His vision was to establish empowered villages as the foundation of Indian democracy, with minimal state interference. Decentralisation was therefore a cornerstone of this framework. He was strongly opposed to cities and regarded their growth as an unfortunate development. The belief that the future of India lies in its villages best encapsulates his opposition to urbanisation. He envisaged the country emerging as a nation of villages, each functioning as a self-sufficient, empowered, and proficient republic.
Overall, Gandhi’s call for abstinence from liquor appears to be receiving diminishing support at both the social and political levels.
Conversely, since Independence, India has undergone steady urbanisation. The 1951 Census recorded an urban population of 17.29 percent. Urbanisation rose to 31.16 percent in 2011 and is currently estimated at around 36 percent. Correspondingly, the rural population share has declined from 82.71 percent to about 64 percent. The pace of urbanisation will depend on economic growth, with higher GDP growth generally accelerating urban expansion. However, the broader trend towards urbanisation is unlikely to be reversed.
As more villages are reclassified as towns and cities, rural governance appears to be of diminishing concern, while urban governance is likely to pose far greater challenges. Gandhian opposition to urban growth is unlikely to remain a component of national policy. At the societal level, citizens have shown little hesitation in leaving villages and migrating to cities. From fewer than 60 million people at Independence, India’s urban population has risen to over 500 million. In addition, around 18 million Indians have migrated abroad, making India one of the largest sources of international migrants. Over time, the idea of India as a nation of village republics is likely to be set aside.
At Independence, Khadi—the hand-spun and hand-woven cloth—occupied a significant place in the Indian consciousness, largely as a consequence of Gandhi’s efforts. He envisaged khadi as a source of employment for poor villagers. Over time, he elevated it into an ideology of self-reliance, self-government, and resistance to dependence on foreign goods. The colonial power had adopted a strategy of exporting raw materials to England and re-importing high-priced finished cloth into India, thereby undermining local industry, promoting its own textile sector, and earning substantial profits. During the freedom movement, khadi emerged as a pillar of resistance and patriotic mobilisation.
At the dawn of Independence, Khadi attire was visible on the streets, worn by much of the political leadership and by freedom activists. In 1956, the Government of India supported its promotion by establishing the Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC). However, khadi was unable to withstand the competition posed by technological advances and mass production. Its production costs were high, and it faced distribution constraints, despite its comfort, environmental sustainability, and skin-friendly qualities. Textile companies largely bypassed khadi and introduced a wide range of far more affordable clothing. The market logic of ‘best value at lowest cost’ took hold. Furthermore, government policies did little to advance its cause.
Many of Gandhi’s principles continue to serve as a moral compass for millions. However, India’s developmental choices and urban growth since Independence have increasingly diverged from his ideals.
While attempts are underway to modernise and customise khadi and position it as a fashion brand, the success is limited. Its market share best illustrates this. Despite its very modest market in 1947 and the impressive subsequent rise in the sale of khadi clothes from INR 1,081 crore in 2013-14 to INR 5,943 crore in 2022-23, this was still a very small percentage of the total apparel market of about INR 7 lakh crore in 2023. Today, khadi is no longer visible on the roads as a proud remembrance of a patriotic symbol.
Many of Gandhi’s principles continue to serve as a moral compass for millions. However, India’s developmental choices and urban growth since Independence have increasingly diverged from his ideals. As social preferences shift and structural transformations accelerate, the gap between Gandhian precepts and contemporary India is likely to widen in the decades ahead.
Ramanath Jha is a Distinguished Fellow at Observer Research Foundation.
The views expressed above belong to the author(s). ORF research and analyses now available on Telegram! Click here to access our curated content — blogs, longforms and interviews.
Dr. Ramanath Jha is Distinguished Fellow at Observer Research Foundation, Mumbai. He works on urbanisation — urban sustainability, urban governance and urban planning. Dr. Jha belongs ...
Read More +
PREV
