India’s urban transport has long prioritised vehicles over pedestrians, resulting in underdeveloped public transit. Despite efforts for proper integration, challenges persist.
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The increased dependency of city dwellers on private modes of transportation, spurred by rapid urbanisation and accelerated economic development, raises concerns about the sustainability of urban transport infrastructure. Public transportation systems help mitigate the pollution and traffic congestion resulting from private vehicles. They are also crucial to achieving the UN Sustainable Development Goals and India’s commitment to ‘net-zero’ carbon emissions by 2070.
Historically, India’s urban transport infrastructure has prioritised vehicular movement over pedestrian needs, leading to insufficient and underdeveloped public transit networks in most cities. The National Urban Transport Policy (NUTP) of 2006 led to country-wide initiatives aimed at fostering sustainability and enhancing transit services within cities. However, new public transit modes often lack seamless integration with existing transportation systems at the operational, institutional, and informational levels. Additionally, there is a shortage of physical and fare integration among different modes of transportation in several Indian cities where, instead of synergising, different public transit modes compete with each other. There is also inadequate non- motorised transport (NMT) infrastructure, such as deficient footpaths and bicycle lanes. Consequently, urban transportation systems remain unsustainable and lack cohesive integration.
The National Urban Transport Policy (NUTP) of 2006 led to country-wide initiatives aimed at fostering sustainability and enhancing transit services within cities.
This article examines the progression of India’s policy frameworks in transport planning strategies in cities by collecting and examining the metadata and contents of 49 central government planning documents. Among these documents, 20 pertained to plans, missions, or projects; 11 encompassed Acts, rules, or standards; seven provided guidelines for urban transport infrastructure construction; six detailed significant initiatives by the Central Government; and five outlined national-level policies related to urban transport.
Figure 1 shows the trajectory of transport planning strategies in various Indian cities.
Source: Authors creation by accessing government documents from the year 1880 to 2020.
Transport planning in India can be traced to the 18th century, with the introduction of tramways for public transit in Bombay (now Mumbai), Calcutta (now Kolkata), Madras (now Chennai), Delhi, and Kanpur, regulated by the Tramway Act of 1886. The tramcar was introduced in 1898. The (Indian) Motor Vehicles Act of 1914 regulated vehicle operations. Subsequent amendments, including its 1939 revision, aimed to ensure fair competition between road transport and railways. Regional and state transport authorities were established to oversee the authorisation of goods carriage and public transit.
The Road Transport Corporations Act of 1950 enabled public sector involvement in road-based transit services, empowering state governments to establish road transport corporations to allow states and cities to operate intra- and intercity bus services. This legislation led to a government monopoly over road transport, alongside a few private operators, for overseeing transit operations. The Motor Vehicle Act was revised in 1988 to cover licensing, registration, vehicle control, and special provisions for State Transport Undertakings (STUs), reinforced by the Central Motor Vehicles Rules 1989.
The Road Transport Corporations Act of 1950 enabled public sector involvement in road-based transit services, empowering state governments to establish road transport corporations to allow states and cities to operate intra- and intercity bus services.
In 1970, Kolkata initiated the Mass Rail Transit System (MRTS) development, backed by the Metro Railway (Construction of Works) Act of 1978, and standardised railway operations through the Railway Act of 1989. The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) Act, 1988, promoted private partnerships for highway development and streamlined land acquisition, with a focus on post-independence regional and intercity transport services; however, there were limited urban transport initiatives.
Since 1986, urban transport has been increasingly differentiated from regional transport. The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA) assumed federal oversight, resulting in two pivotal initiatives: the establishment of the Institute of Urban Transport in 1997 for building capacity and technical expertise, and the launch of the NUTP in 2006, which prioritised public and non-motorised transport investments to foster an integrated transport schema over road expansion. It also prompted discourse on sustainable transport modes and a multimodal transport framework, which has been reinforced by complementary policies over the past two decades, like the Metro Rail Policy 2017, Transit-Oriented Development Policy 2017, and Auto Fuel Vision and Policy 2025.
Governments at the central and state levels have devised multiple protocols aimed at strengthening integrated transport planning. These include the development of detailed project reports (DPR), the provision of financial resources for transportation research, the establishment of a single metropolitan transportation authority (UMTA), the promotion of non-motorised and public bike-sharing initiatives, and the formulation of Comprehensive Mobility Plans (CMPs) through outlining terms of reference. The national government has also prepared guidelines to advance the National Ambient Air Quality Standards. Additionally, it has established performance benchmarks for urban transportation systems and infrastructure as well as specifications for urban buses and emerging metro rail systems such as Metro-Neo and Metro-Lite.
The urban transportation ecosystem in India has undergone unique development trajectories, including public transportation options, NMT infrastructure, multimodal transportation systems, and road network connectivity. The development of cities’ transportation systems is heavily influenced by political dynamics, which results in a fragmented transportation landscape that lacks sustainability.
While state governments hold primary responsibility for urban policy formulation and planning, the Central Government offers support by providing strategies, directives, advisory services, model legislation, and financial assistance.
Despite policy efforts in the past two decades to establish a cohesive and sustainable transportation system, their practical implementation has been limited. Moreover, individual schemes and missions operate in silos rather than collaboratively, which fail to address transportation challenges. India’s administrative framework allocates the responsibility of formulating policies and plans to both state and central authorities. While state governments hold primary responsibility for urban policy formulation and planning, the Central Government offers support by providing strategies, directives, advisory services, model legislation, and financial assistance. The execution of urban policies is largely at the discretion of state governments. This leads to disparate performances across different cities in terms of sustainable urban transport planning.
Urban transport governance involves multiple stakeholders who impact the quality and quantity of transportation infrastructure and service provision. Effective policy implementation often involves the coordination of various agencies to achieve common objectives. However, the involvement of multiple actors presents challenges to the efficacy of these arrangements, necessitating innovative and adaptable solutions. Although numerous legislations and government missions refer to sustainable transportation, the strategies for its attainment often lack clarity and detail. There is also an apparent lack of continuous monitoring mechanisms and effective coordination among institutions and ministries. Therefore, a robust institutional framework is imperative for the successful implementation of policies.
The dependence on higher levels of government for funding has also impeded progress. Urban local bodies (ULBs) often lack the authority to generate additional revenue autonomously, which poses an obstacle to the enhancement of city infrastructure. Therefore, it is imperative to empower ULBs to function as independent entities capable of accruing funds for infrastructure development projects. Such empowerment would enable ULBs to expand their infrastructure base, enhance the quality of sustainability services, and facilitate the accelerated growth of the Indian economy.
Urban local bodies (ULBs) often lack the authority to generate additional revenue autonomously, which poses an obstacle to the enhancement of city infrastructure.
Greater attention needs to be paid to the volume capacity ratio in urban transport infrastructure expansion. While initial investments were directed towards expanding and constructing roads, flyovers, and underpasses, there has been inadequate focus on enhancing sustainable transport modes such as public transportation and NMT. Furthermore, the complexities associated with urban zoning have posed challenges in land acquisition and infrastructure development, resulting in delays in sustainable transport projects.
To achieve sustainable urban transport systems, strategic investments need to be made towards the development of public transit systems that are tailored to the needs of cities, alongside the promotion of NMT options. Demand management measures and community engagement in planning are integral to these reforms. Efficient connectivity and accessibility within cities will not be possible without policy reforms that mandate integrated transport planning across all modes of transportation, including public transit, private transport, walking, and cycling.
This essay is part of a larger compendium “Policy and Institutional Imperatives for India’s Urban Renaissance”.
Nandan H Dawda is a Fellow with the Urban Studies Programme at the Observer Research Foundation.
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Dr Nandan H Dawda is a Fellow with the Urban Studies programme at the Observer Research Foundation. He has a bachelor's degree in Civil Engineering and ...
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