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As plastic particles increasingly leach from oceans into human organs, a deeper understanding of the health impacts of plastic pollution is urgently needed
Image Source: Getty
The plastic crisis is no longer a distant environmental problem—it has entered the human lungs, blood, and both the maternal and foetal sides of human placentas, posing a growing economic, health, and environmental burden. Microscopic fragments from plastic known as microplastics (typically under 5 millimetres) have permeated the air we breathe, the water we drink, and the food we eat, all the way from the remotest regions in the Arctic to the depths of the Mariana Trench. As these particles travel from oceans to human organs, a deeper understanding of their health impacts is required.
People consume microplastics through tap and bottled water, canned drinks, seafood, fruits and vegetables, and even milk. A study in Mumbai estimated a daily average exposure of 382 ± 205, 1036 ± 493 and 2012 ± 598 microplastic particles per day through drinking water, air and food ingestion, respectively. Dust and smog carry microplastics from sources including vehicle tire wear, synthetic textiles, and construction debris. Burning plastic waste also releases toxic gases along with microplastic particles and chemical additives into the air.
Infants and young children are particularly vulnerable, with the estimated annual consumption of microplastics per kilogram of body weight amounting to 5186 ± 3751 particles for children, as opposed to 1482 ± 1072 particles for adults.
Infants and young children are particularly vulnerable, with the estimated annual consumption of microplastics per kilogram of body weight amounting to 5186 ± 3751 particles for children, as opposed to 1482 ± 1072 particles for adults. Teething babies, who explore the world orally and spend the majority of their time indoors, where household dust becomes a reservoir of microplastics, inhale and ingest these particles. Research from Ireland showed that bottle-fed infants could be swallowing up to 4.5 million microplastic particles per day from polypropylene baby bottles. Another 2023 study indicated that plastic storage bags for breastmilk can shed microplastics, with infants ingesting an estimated 1465–5893 particles per litre daily from feeding.
Dermal contact, particularly for waste handlers, is another pathway for microplastic-laden dust and chemicals to penetrate the skin. Waste-handlers are regularly exposed to a toxic mix of plastic dust, ash, and fumes, with minimal protection for minimal earnings. A study in Lucknow found that the prevalence of respiratory problems among rag pickers was 19 percent, 40 percent suffered from eye problems, and 22 percent from dermatological problems. Research by Human Rights Watch found that workers at plastic recycling facilities and nearby communities are also at risk of developing chronic health conditions due to the toxic dust and fumes.
While research on long-term consequences on health is still being conducted, it is indicative of an emerging public health emergency. Once inside the body, these particles may cross cell membranes and enter the bloodstream, lodging into tissues and triggering chronic inflammation or oxidative stress. Microplastics retain the properties of the petrochemicals they are made of, many of which interfere with human physiology and absorb heavy metals and pathogens on their surface, carrying these contaminants to the organs.
A 2021 study showed a correlation between microplastics and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), with higher concentrations of microplastics in the faeces of patients with IBD. Microplastics can also potentially cause DNA damage, with research indicating a correlation between exposure to these particles and the onset of various cancers.
Toxic chemicals such as polybrominated diphenylethers (PBDE), phthalates, perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), and bisphenol-A (BPA) can leach out of degraded microplastics and are known endocrine disruptors. They are also associated with adult diabetes and developmental problems, impact neurodevelopment and reproductive functions, increasing the risk of premature birth and other pregnancy complications as demonstrated by animal studies alongside associations with male infertility markers. Additionally, a study found that plastic polymers and their chemical additives, specifically di-2-ethylhexylphthalate (DEHP) contribute to cardiovascular diseases, with 356,238 deaths globally in 2018 among individuals aged 55-64 attributed to DEHP exposure (13.5 percent of all cardiovascular deaths), of which 349,113 were attributed to plastic use.
While human epidemiological evidence is still limited, the potential impact of exposure to plastics and their additives calls for comprehensive measures to tackle the public health crisis and its consequent economic burden. One study in the United States estimated the disease burden from plastic materials to amount to approximately US$249 billion in 2018 alone, with PBDE exposure contributing around US$159 billion, phthalate exposure contributing approximately US$66.7 billion and US$22.4 billion attributed to PFAS exposure. An analysis in India estimated that the social costs of the plastic industry in 2023 ranged between US$62–96 billion. In a business-as-usual scenario, the cumulative costs are estimated to amount to over US$540 billion from 2025-2030. Even though this analysis does not account for the costs on human health, the social costs in India are reason enough to call for a radical shift.
India’s plastic pollution crisis requires a multidimensional approach that involves policy reform, infrastructure development, and public health considerations.
Monitoring and Surveillance
A national microplastic surveillance strategy must be adopted to track its prevalence in air, water, food and biological samples. Leveraging artificial intelligence (AI), a model analysed 50,000 municipalities worldwide to identify hotspots for improperly burned or disposed of plastic, revealing India as the largest polluter, producing 9.3 tonnes of plastic waste, representing one-fifth of global plastic pollution. India can utilise similar technologies to map hotspots within the country and devise strategies accordingly. Additionally, there is a lack of dose-response studies on its health effects in the Indian context. Data from such a programme can help assess and guide evidence-based interventions.
Safeguarding Vulnerable Populations
Globally, 60 percent of all plastic waste is collected by waste collectors in the informal sector, of which 20 percent are women. By formalising this sector and providing them with protective gear, regular health screenings, extended coverage under government health insurance schemes, along with adequate training, some of this disproportionate burden may be relieved.
Regulatory agencies, particularly the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI), should continually update lists of plastic chemicals of concern and enforce their removal or substitution. Regulations for industries to use appropriate filtration systems at the source itself can prevent further damage as well.
Considering the higher vulnerability of infants and children, hospitals and paediatricians should provide plastic exposure reduction guidance. Household and commercial behaviour will ultimately determine the effectiveness of policies. Tools such as information, education and communication campaigns, behavioural nudges, incentives and penalties may be used to ensure adoption, particularly in high-risk regions. Regular medical assessments of vulnerable groups will also help prevent adverse health outcomes and better understand the health burden of plastic pollution in India.
Investing in Infrastructure
India has 2,614 plastic waste processors, yet, as of 2024, only 10.3 million tonnes have been processed. Meanwhile, in 2022-23 alone, India generated 4.1 million tonnes of plastic waste. Strategies must focus on reducing plastic use while also building additional waste processing capacity to prevent environmental leakage. Urban planning can play a role as well. Planting vegetation barriers near highways or industrial areas can help filter dust, intercepting particulate matter. Landfills can be designed with dust suppression systems to keep microplastic-laden dust from wafting into neighbourhoods as well.
Furthermore, governments should stay informed about emerging technologies to consider adoption and encourage uptake. Investments in advanced water filtration infrastructure, such as dissolved air flotation and membrane bioreactor systems, can help eliminate over 95 percent of microplastic particles. The uptake of HEPA-grade air purifiers should be encouraged in homes, schools and offices in high-risk regions. A variety of new technologies are being piloted to catch microplastics before they disperse: filter attachments for washing machines, stormwater drain filters, vacuum trucks with finer filters for cleaning streets, and household vacuuming can all reduce the prevalence of microplastics in the environment.
Regulatory Oversight
Although certain single-use plastic items are banned in India, the list covers a limited number of items only. Governments must phase out the most problematic plastic materials and additives. Regulatory agencies, particularly the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI), should continually update lists of plastic chemicals of concern and enforce their removal or substitution. Regulations for industries to use appropriate filtration systems at the source itself can prevent further damage as well.
UN Global Plastics Treaty, currently under negotiation, presents an opportunity to codify health-driven provisions in global plastic governance and take coordinated action internationally.
While a shift to circularity can reduce plastic waste, it should not compromise health standards. Using recycled plastic in food packaging poses hazardous risks, transferring chemical contaminants introduced during use, waste handling and recycling into food and beverages. Regulatory oversight to ensure that safety is prioritised is essential as we transition into a circular economy.
Coordinated Action
The responsibilities for plastic use and management in India are divided among several authorities, including the Ministry of Environment, Forests & Climate Change, the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, the Central Pollution Control Board, the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, and FSSAI. Policies often lose momentum as they trickle down, and coordination among stakeholders is key for proper implementation. Finally, the UN Global Plastics Treaty, currently under negotiation, presents an opportunity to codify health-driven provisions in global plastic governance and take coordinated action internationally.
Given the ubiquity of microplastics in the environment, their ingestion is inevitable. The costs of plastics have long been externalised─be it through hospital bills, environmental remediation, and lost vitality among the population. Mitigating these externalities requires coordinated action, preventing leakage into air, food and water. Treating plastic pollution as not only a waste problem but as a public health emergency will be essential to securing India’s future.
Nimisha Chadha is a Research Assistant with the Health Initiative at the Observer Research Foundation.
The views expressed above belong to the author(s). ORF research and analyses now available on Telegram! Click here to access our curated content — blogs, longforms and interviews.
Nimisha Chadha is a Research Assistant with ORF’s Centre for New Economic Diplomacy. She was previously an Associate at PATH (2023) and has a MSc ...
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