China’s civilian research deployments for deep seabed mining in the Indo-Pacific are a cause for concern and a call for cooperation
Image Source: Getty
In recent times, there has been an ongoing debate about China having the largest navy, the largest coast guard and the largest maritime militia in the world. There is a need to add another key factor here: China also has the largest marine research and oceanographic fleet, with 64 active vessels now, compared to only 19 such vessels in 2012. These include vessels designed and optimised for research related to seismology, bathymetry, topography, climatology, deep ocean habitats, currents, thermocline, salinity, seabed samples collection, the operation of manned and unmanned submersibles, and for the launch and recovery of underwater monitoring systems. Additionally, some vessels are designed for the detection and tracking of ballistic missiles. China’s 14th five-year plan accords high priority to deep sea exploration under the science and technology section, with progress being reviewed periodically at the highest levels. As seen in other Chinese programmes, the overall objective is a combination of strategic, economic, and security considerations.
China’s 14th five-year plan accords high priority to deep sea exploration under the science and technology section, with progress being reviewed periodically at the highest levels. As seen in other Chinese programmes, the overall objective is a combination of strategic, economic, and security considerations.
While these Chinese research vessels are now being deployed to the “far seas”, to make this endeavour truly global, several of these deployments are in the Indo-Pacific region, with special emphasis on the Western Pacific, South China Sea, and the Indian Ocean. It is important to recall that China’s aggressive moves in the South China Sea and the East China Sea were preceded by the extensive deployment of research vessels in the 1980s and 1990s in these waters. In the Indian Ocean Region (IOR), the deployments have been in different areas with a special emphasis on the southwestern Indian Ocean, the Andaman Sea, the Bay of Bengal, and the Arabian Sea. In 2018, Chinese research vessel Xiang Yang Hong 3 undertook a prolonged deployment of 250 days in the IOR. In August/September 2024, three research ships (Xiang Hong 3, Hai Yang Shi You 718, and Bei Diao 996) were deployed in the Bay of Bengal region. These ships followed different routes for entry into the IOR, which may also be linked to surveying the potential routes for People’s Liberation Army (PLA) Navy submarines. There have also been some reports of some of these research vessels occasionally switching off their automatic identification systems (AIS) or using AIS spoofing.
The International Seabed Authority (ISA), a body established in 1994 under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), has, over a period, awarded 31 exploration contracts in four areas, namely the Southwest Indian Ocean, Northwest Pacific Ocean, Clarion Clipperton Zone (in Central South Pacific), and the Mid Atlantic Range. China has obtained five of these, the highest number by any country. In 2016, China passed a National Law on the Exploration and Development of Resources in Seabed Areas. It has regularly deployed research vessels to allocated areas, with advanced submersibles collecting seabed samples. China currently dominates research and exploration for deep-seabed mining and is seeking to drive the future framework for its commercial exploitation. The United States (US) is not a member of the International Seabed Authority (ISA), since it is not a signatory to the UNCLOS. In the Southwest Indian Ocean, exploration contracts have been awarded to India, China, South Korea and Germany.
In 2016, China passed a National Law on the Exploration and Development of Resources in Seabed Areas. It has regularly deployed research vessels to allocated areas, with advanced submersibles collecting seabed samples.
Discussions have been ongoing at the ISA to evolve a regulatory framework and Mining Code for commercial deep-seabed mining in waters beyond national jurisdiction, to transition away from exploration towards exploitation. These have, however, not made much headway due to concerns related to their potential impact on the environment and marine habitats, ensuring a commitment to the common heritage principle (a model for equitable sharing under the provisions of Article 82 of the UNCLOS), gaps in research so far to ensure safe mining, and the requirement of oversight mechanisms. At the last ISA meeting held on 24 August, the overall policy could not be agreed upon once again, and there was a call for a precautionary pause.
Most of these research vessels are owned by the Chinese Ministry of Natural Resources (formerly State Oceanic Administration), the China Academy of Science, the China Ocean Minerals R&D Association, and other state-owned research agencies and universities. These agencies work in tandem with the underwater studies and submarine centres/academies of the PLA (Navy). The research vessels are homeported at Xiamen, Zhoushan, Shanghai and Qingdao to facilitate collaboration with naval establishments at these locations. In most cases, there are formal cooperation agreements between the controlling agencies and the PLA (Navy). Some research vessels also function as mother ships for manned and unmanned submersibles. The manned submersibles include the Fendouzhe (dived up to 10,000 meters in 2020 with three researchers onboard), Jialong I and II, and the Shenhai Yongshi. Two manned submersibles operated jointly in the South China Sea in 2022. There are several unmanned submersibles operated from these ships, including the Hailong and the Qianlong series, along with remotely operated vehicles like the SeaHorse and underwater gliders such as the Sea Wing. These underwater vehicles for research and the PLA Navy’s Autonomous Underwater Vehicle and Unmanned Underwater Vehicle programmes leverage each other’s development work, technologies, and operational exploitation experiences.
The research vessels coordinate and exchange information with the PLA (Navy) survey ships. As a part of the civil-military fusion strategy, these arrangements are also intended to improve undersea warfare capabilities. These include the assessment of suitable areas for deployment of nuclear submarines (SSNs and SSBNs), performance data for sensors and equipment underwater, and trials of some equipment under development for use in onboard submarines or for anti-submarine warfare. The expanded footprint of these research vessels is also an indicator of the future presence and deployments of the PLA (Navy).
Several other countries have ongoing national programmes for deep-sea exploration and seabed mining, which are at varying stages of progress. China has often proposed partnerships and embarked scientists and observers on its research ships from other countries for a few expeditions. However, progress in genuine collaborative ventures has been limited due to a variety of challenges.
India’s Samudrayaan Deep Ocean Mission to explore the ocean floor (with trials of the ‘Matsya’ manned submersible likely to begin soon), its development of the deep-seabed mining vehicle ‘Varha’, and its recent orders for additional ocean research vessels and acoustic research vessels indicate the priority being accorded to the deep seas by the Indian government. Recently, India has indicated plans for its first-ever auction for exploration and exploitation, of around seven seabed mineral blocks in its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) near the Great Nicobar Island. The United States (US), Japan and Australia are pursuing technologically advanced programmes in this domain. Therefore, it would be desirable for these countries to develop a cooperation plan for ocean research, deep-sea exploration and seabed mining. This could be on a bilateral basis or under the umbrella of the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue—a grouping of Australia, India, Japan, and the US.
Of the seven pillars outlined in India’s Indo-Pacific Oceans’ Initiative (IPOI), four relate directly to deep-sea exploration and deep-seabed mining: Pillar 2 for Maritime Ecology; Pillar 3 for Maritime Resources; Pillar 4 for Capacity Building and Resource Sharing; Pillar 6 for Science, Technology and Academic Cooperation. Participating countries under these pillars can work together to evolve a cooperative framework for future deep-sea research, exploration, and mining. Enhancing cooperation in this key area is essential to strengthen our understanding of the deep seas, ensure development for the common good, and promote maritime stability and security.
Girish Luthra is a Distinguished Fellow at the Observer Research Foundation.
The views expressed above belong to the author(s). ORF research and analyses now available on Telegram! Click here to access our curated content — blogs, longforms and interviews.
Vice Admiral Girish Luthra is Distinguished Fellow at Observer Research Foundation, Mumbai. He is Former Commander-in-Chief of Western Naval Command, and Southern Naval Command, Indian ...
Read More +
PREV
